Reformation The movement for the reform of Western
Christianity that led in the 16th century to its division
into opposed Catholic and Protestant churches. The roots
of the Reformation are now usually seen in the reform
movement of the medieval period, the failure of which left
many still dissatisfied with numerous aspects of Church
government and teaching. This dissatisfaction found an
important outlet in the writings of humanist scholars,
such as ERASMUSand Johann REUCHLIN. By their sustained
criticism of abuses within the Church, and still more by
their encouragement of textual analysis (thereby under-
mining the claims of the Church to be the final arbiter on
matters of faith), such scholars played an important role
in creating the climate of opinion in which protest against
unpopular papal practices could gain a following (see HU-
MANISM).
LUTHER’s protest against INDULGENCESin 1517 thus
belonged to a well-established tradition; its novelty lay in
the speed with which it spread throughout Germany (its
diffusion assisted by printing, a comparatively recent in-
vention) and the determination with which Luther
pressed home his charges of papal corruption. In his great
tracts of 1520 Luther developed his criticism into a sys-
tematic denunciation of the old Church, emerging as a
worthy leader of the movement; the Roman hierarchy, in
contrast, responded with hesitation and indecision, influ-
enced by political considerations that dictated caution in
dealing with the German princes and with Emperor
Charles V. With this encouragement, the evangelical
movement spread very rapidly. By 1535 most of the impe-
rial free cities and many of the princely states had em-
braced the Reformation. When they banded together in a
military association to defend Protestantism (see SCHMAL-
KALDIC LEAGUE) its future within the empire was largely
secure.
The great interest shown in Luther’s writings outside
Germany strongly assisted the spread of the Reformation.
In Switzerland the lead was taken by Ulrich ZWINGLI, who
between 1522 and 1525 introduced in Zürich a radically
reformed church polity. Zwingli’s teaching, with its greater
emphasis on communal values and a more emphatic re-
jection of Catholic practice, achieved a substantial follow-
ing in Switzerland and south Germany, despite a serious
disagreement with Luther over sacramental doctrine
which a personal meeting failed to resolve (see MARBURG,
COLLOQUY OF). After Zwingli’s death the leadership of the
Swiss Reformation passed eventually to John CALVIN, the
reformer of Geneva. Calvin introduced into Geneva a
strongly theocratic church polity, based on a tightly orga-
nized reformed theology that preserved much of the best
from both the Lutheran and non-Lutheran reforming tra-
ditions (see INSTITUTES, THE).
The spread of CALVINISMafter 1550 helped revive a
movement that showed signs of flagging in the face of an
increasingly determined Catholic counteroffensive. In
France early interest in reform (characterized by groups
such as Guillaume Briçonnet and the Circle of Meaux)
had given way to a sustained persecution, which forced
most of the leading French Protestants to seek safety in
exile. But between 1555, when the first church was
founded in Paris, and 1562 over 2000 Calvinist commu-
nities were planted (see HUGUENOTS), a rate of growth that
destabilized the weak French monarchy and precipitated
the French Wars of RELIGION. Although the Reformation
never attained full success in France, the Edict of Nantes
(1598) guaranteed the Huguenot churches the status of a
privileged minority. In the Netherlands Calvinism also
made rapid progress, building on the foundations estab-
lished by a robust native evangelical tradition. Although
forced to take their first constitutional steps in exile
(Synod of Emden, 1571) the Calvinist communities re-
turned in time to play a major role in the war of indepen-
dence that freed the northern Netherlands from Spain. In
1622 Calvinism was established as the official state reli-
gion of the United Provinces. Calvinism also achieved a
notable triumph in Scotland, where the Reformation again
prevailed as part of a movement of national self-determi-
nation (1559–61). Under the leadership of John KNOXthe
Scottish ministers succeeded in establishing a strongly
presbyterian church order. Other important Calvinist
churches were planted in central Europe (Bohemia,
Poland, Hungary), while Lutheranism achieved perma-
nent success outside Germany only in the Baltic and Scan-
dinavia.
The Reformation in England conformed fully to nei-
ther of these patterns, the breach with Rome having been
initiated by the otherwise orthodox King HENRY VIIIfor en-
tirely political reasons. The introduction of a genuine
Protestant polity was achieved only in the reign
(1547–53) of Henry’s son EDWARD VIunder the guidance
of Thomas CRANMER, who was responsible for the BOOK OF
COMMON PRAYER(1549). After a brief Catholic restoration
(1553–58) under Mary I, the accession of Elizabeth sig-
naled the final triumph of Protestantism. The Anglican
Church preserved its individuality in a unique form of
church government that is often described as Erastian (see
ERASTIANISM), although in doctrinal terms it was essen-
tially Calvinist.
The Reformation inevitably spawned a great variety of
religious thinkers who owed allegiance to none of the
major church leaders. Luther was confronted with the
problem of radical dissent in Wittenberg as early as 1521
(Thomas Müntzer and the Zwickau Prophets; see ANABAP-
TISTS), and Zwingli faced a similar challenge from the
Swiss Brethren. The most coherent force beyond the
Protestant mainstream was the Anabaptist movement,
which made rapid progress in Germany and northern Eu-
rope. Drawn together by a shared practice of adult bap-
tism, the ANABAPTISTSwere persecuted by Catholics and
Protestants alike, particularly after the collapse of the rad-RReeffoorrmmaattiioonn 4 40077