138 ❯ Step 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High
- Acquisition—in classical conditioning, learning to give a known response to a new
stimulus, the neutral stimulus
US → UR
NS + US → UR
CS → CR - Extinction—repeatedly presenting a CS without a UCS leads to return of the NS.
- Spontaneous recovery —after extinction, and without training, the previous CS
suddenly elicits the CR again temporarily. - Generalization—stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without training.
- Discrimination—the ability to tell the difference between stimuli so that only the
CS elicits the CR. - Higher-order conditioning—classical conditioning in which a well-learned CS is
paired with an NS to produce a CR to the NS.
Aversive conditioning—learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus
or reinforcer.
Avoidance behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus before it begins.
Escape behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus after it has already started.Instrumental learning—associative learning in which a behavior becomes more or less
probable depending on its consequences.Law of Effect—behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened while
behaviors followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened.Operant conditioning—learning that occurs when an active learner performs certain
voluntary behavior, and the consequences of the behavior (pleasant or unpleasant)
determine the likelihood of its recurrence. Terms and concepts associated with operant
conditioning include:- Positive reinforcement—a rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behav-
ior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated. - Primary reinforcer—something that is biologically important and, thus, rewarding.
- Secondary reinforcer—something rewarding because it is associated with a pri-
mary reinforcer. - Generalized reinforcer—secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different
primary reinforcers. - Premack principle—a more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less
probable one. - Negative reinforcement—removal of an aversive consequence that follows a volun-
tary behavior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated; two
types are escape and avoidance. - Punishment—an aversive consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby
decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated. - Omission training—removal of a rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary
behavior thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.