Cognition ❮ 147the Internet as actually having happened. This is a misattribution error, also referred
to as source amnesia.
Research has shown that we can improve our memory. Applying the information
in this section, we can improve our memory for information in AP Psychology by
overlearning, spending more time actively rehearsing material, relating the material to
ourselves, using mnemonic devices, activating retrieval cues, recalling information soon
after we learn it, minimizing interference, spacing out study sessions, and testing our
own knowledge.Language
Language is a flexible system of spoken, written, or signed symbols that enables us to com-
municate our thoughts and feelings. Language transmits knowledge from one generation
to the next and expresses the history of a culture.Building Blocks: Phonemes and Morphemes
Language is made up of basic sound units called phonemes. The phonemes themselves
have no meaning. Of about 100 different phonemes worldwide, English uses about 45.
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes,
and suffixes. Most morphemes are a combination of phonemes. For example, farm is made
up of three phonemes (sounds) and one morpheme (meaning). Farmer has two morphemes.
By adding -er to farm we change the meaning of the word to an individual who farms.Combination Rules
Each language has a system of rules that determines how sounds and words can be com-
bined and used to communicate meaning, called grammar. The set of rules that regulate the
order in which words can be combined into grammatically sensible sentences in a language
is called syntax. When we hear a sentence or phrase that lacks proper syntax, such as, “a
yellow, big balloon,” we know it doesn’t sound right. The set of rules that enables us to
derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences is semantics. Sentences have both
a surface structure (the particular words and phrases) and a deep structure (the underlying
meaning).Language Acquisition Stages
From birth, we can communicate. A newborn’s cry alerts others to the infant’s discomfort.
Children’s language development proceeds through a series of stages from the simple to
the more complex. The coos and gurgles of the newborn turn into the babbling of the
4-month-old baby. Babbling is the production of phonemes, not limited to the phonemes
to which the baby is exposed. Around 10 months of age, however, the phonemes a baby
uses narrow to those of the language(s) spoken around him or her. At about their first
birthday, most babies use a holophrase—one word—to convey meaning. They may point
outdoors and say, “Go!” By their second birthday, they begin to put together two-word
sentences, telegraphic speech characterized by the use of a verb and noun, such as “eat
cookie.” At between 2 and 3 years of age, the child’s vocabulary expands exponentially.
Sentences also increase in length and complexity. By the age of 3, children begin to follow
the rules of grammar without any instruction. A 3-year-old says, “I goed to the store,”
indicating use of the general rule that we form the past tense by adding -ed to a word. This
is an example of overgeneralization or overregularization in which children apply gram-
matical rules without making appropriate exceptions. As their language develops further,