decorated on the front with a chaotic scene of battle between
Romans and one of their northern foes, probably the Goths. The
sculptor spread the writhing and highly emotive figures evenly
across the entire relief, with no illusion of space behind them. This
piling of figures is an even more extreme rejection of Classical per-
spective than was the use of floating ground lines on the pedestal of
the Column of Antoninus Pius (FIG. 10-58). It underscores the in-
creasing dissatisfaction Late Antique artists felt with the Classical
style.
Within this dense mass of intertwined bodies, the central horse-
man stands out vividly. He wears no helmet and thrusts out his open
right hand to demonstrate that he holds no weapon. Several scholars
have identified him as one of the sons of Trajan Decius. In an age when
the Roman army was far from invincible and Roman emperors were
constantly felled by other Romans, the young general on the Ludovisi
battle sarcophagus is boasting that he is a fearless commander assured
of victory. His self-assurance may stem from his having embraced one
of the increasingly popular Oriental mystery religions. On the youth’s
forehead is carved the emblem of Mithras, the Persian god of light,
truth, and victory over death.
The insecurity of the times led many Romans to seek solace in
philosophy. On many third-century sarcophagi, the deceased as-
sumes the role of the learned intellectual. One especially large exam-
ple (FIG. 10-71) depicts a seated Roman philosopher holding a
scroll. Two standing women (also with portrait features) gaze at him
from left and right, confirming his importance. In the background
are other philosophers, students or colleagues of the central de-
ceased teacher. The two women may be the deceased’s wife and
daughter, two sisters, or some other combination of family mem-
bers. The composition, with a frontal central figure and two subor-
dinate flanking figures, is typical of the Late Antique style. This type
of sarcophagus became very popular for Christian burials. Sculptors
used the wise-man motif not only to portray the deceased (FIG. 11-6)
but also Christ flanked by his apostles (FIG. 11-7).
10-71Sarcophagus
of a philosopher,
ca. 270–280 ce.Marble,
4 11 high. Musei
Vaticani, Rome.
On many third-century
sarcophagi, the deceased
appears as a learned
intellectual. Here, the
seated Roman philoso-
pher is the central frontal
figure. His two female
muses also have portrait
features.
1 ft.TEMPLE OF VENUS, BAALBEKThe decline in respect for
Classical art also can be seen in architecture. At Baalbek (ancient
Heliopolis) in present-day Lebanon, the architect of the Temple of
Venus (FIG. 10-72), following in the “baroque” tradition of the
Treasury at Petra (FIG. 10-53), ignored almost every rule of Classical
design. Although made of stone, the third-century building, with its
circular domed cella set behind a gabled columnar facade, was in
many ways a critique of the concrete Pantheon (FIG. 10-49), which
by then had achieved the status of a classic. Many features of the
Baalbek temple intentionally depart from the norm. The platform,
for example, is scalloped all around the cella. The columns—the
only known instance offive-sided Corinthian capitals with corre-
sponding pentagonal bases—support a matching scalloped entabla-
ture (which serves to buttress the shallow stone dome). These con-
cave forms and those of the niches in the cella walls play off against
the cella’s convex shape. Even the “traditional” facade of the Baalbek
temple is eccentric. The unknown architect inserted an arch within
the triangular pediment.Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
In an attempt to restore order to the Roman Empire, Diocletian
(r. 284–305 CE), whose troops proclaimed him emperor, decided to
share power with his potential rivals. In 293 he established the tetrar-
chy (rule by four) and adopted the title of Augustus of the East. The
other three tetrarchswere a corresponding Augustus of the West, and
Eastern and Western Caesars (whose allegiance to the two Augusti
was cemented by marriage to their daughters). Together, the four
emperors ruled without strife until Diocletian retired in 305. With-
out his leadership, the tetrarchic form of government collapsed and
renewed civil war followed. The division of the Roman Empire
into eastern and western spheres survived, however. It persisted
throughout the Middle Ages, setting the Latin West apart from the
Byzantine East.280 Chapter 10 THE ROMAN EMPIRE