New Mexico and the Gulf Coast B 133
returned south, had also been killed by Indi-
ans. Soldiers from the expedition, however,
announced that they had discovered great civ-
ilizations. In only 40 years Coronado had been
so thoroughly forgotten that speculators—
persons primarily interested in making large
profits—suddenly flocked to the court of King
Philip II, asking permission to “discover” and
settle northern lands, in the belief that
Spaniards had never before encountered the
Pueblo civilizations.
Ayear later, in 1582, another Franciscan,
Bernardino Beltrán, organized an expedi-
tion, hoping to find Rodríguez and López
alive. Beltrán forged a partnership with
Antonio de Espejo, a wealthy rancher who
agreed to pay all expenses, including a troop
of14 soldiers. The small force followed the
Río Grande to the Albuquerque area, where
they learned that both Rodríguez and López
were indeed dead. Fray Beltrán, whose mis-
sion was accomplished, wanted to return to
Nueva Vizcaya. Espejo, however, led the
expedition into what is now Arizona,
prospecting for silver. Again, no wealth or
grand cities were found. When Espejo
returned in 1583, however, he applied for
permission to pursue, as he wrote in his
request to the king, “the exploration and set-
tlement of these lands and others which I
may discover,for I shall not be satisfied until
I reach the coasts of the North and South
Seas.” Espejo, like others hoping to secure a
royal contract, was rejected, but he encour-
aged the same sort of rumors that had once
lured Coronado north.
THE OÑATE EXPEDITION
The official royal contract for settling New
Mexico was awarded to Juan de Oñate. By
contemporary Spanish standards, he was
well qualified. His social standing was
impeccable—his wife was a descendant of
both the Aztec emperor Moctezuma and
conquistador Hernán Cortés. Oñate had
experience fighting Indians in the northern
provinces. Above all, he was born into a
wealthy Zacatecas silver mining family.
Oñate’s wealth was important because,
despite royal approval, he was required to
bankroll the venture by himself.
Heavily armed, Oñate set forth in 1598
with a force of 400 soldiers, settlers, and ser-
vants, as well as a large supply of livestock.
Although it was largely a civilian expedition
formed for mining, farming, and missionary
activities, Oñate’s dual authority as civil and
military governor allowed him to enforce
strict rules. Deserters would be executed.
Rather than follow the route opened by the
Rodríguez-Chamuscado expedition along the
Conchos River, Oñate headed straight north.
After a harrowing passage through the sand
dunes of the Chihuahuan desert in northern
Mexico, the colonists reached the Río Grande
and celebrated with a feast. When his scouts
found a place to ford the river, Oñate ordered
a halt. Inan elaborate ceremony on April 30,
1598, Oñate declared that he was taking offi-
cial possession of the entire territory for King
Philip II, announcing the formation of the
province of New Mexico. The column crossed
the Río Grande on May 4, near present down-
town El Paso.
Oñate continued north through the Río
Grande Valley, summoning Indian leaders to
explain that it was in their best interests to
swear obedience to the Spanish king and the
pope. The assembled chiefs agreed to Oñate’s
ceremonial demands, but how the ritual was
viewed by its Native American participants is
unknown. On July 11 Oñate arrived at the
Tewa pueblo of Ohkay, near the meeting of the