Academic Scepticism 281
or zeal for victory, but because of the obscurity of the very matters that led
Socrates to a confession of ignorance, and before Socrates, Democritus,
Anaxagoras, Empedocles, and almost all the old philosophers. These had
said that nothing could be understood or perceived or known, that the
senses are narrow, minds are feeble, lives are short, and, according to
Democritus, that truth is immersed in the depths, that everything is
accepted on the basis of opinions and customs, no room is left for truth,
and consequently they said that all things are enveloped in darkness.
- So, Arcesilaus denied that there was anything that could be known,
not even that very thing that Socrates thought was left for him to know,
[namely, that he knew nothing]. He judged everything to reside in dark-
ness and that nothing could be discerned or understood. For these reasons,
one should neither profess nor affirm nor give approval with assent to
anything, and should always hold back and restrain oneself from slipping
into an unfounded position. It would be a rash mistake to approve of
something false or unknown, and there is nothing more disgraceful than
for assent and approval to outrun knowledge and perception. He acted
consistently with this position: by arguing against everyone's opinions
he led many to share his position, so that when equally weighty arguments
were found for contrary positions on the same subject, it was easier to
withhold assent from either position. - They call this the New Academy, but it seems to me to be Old,
at least if we count Plato as belonging to the Old, for in his books nothing
is affirmed and there are many arguments on both sides of an issue,
everything is open to question, and nothing is said with certainty. Never-
theless, let that Academy which you described be called the Old and this
one the New. This Academy continued up to Carneades, who was fourth
in line from Arcesilaus, and maintained the same position as the latter.
Carneades was not unacquainted with any area of philosophy, as I have
learned from those who heard him, especially Zeno the Epicurean, who,
although he disagreed with him greatly, admired him above others, for
he had an incredible facility ... [The text breaks off here.]
Cicero Academica 2.98-105 [III-20]
98 .... But putting aside those cutting remarks and the entire tortuous
class of argumentation, let us display our true position, for once all the
views of Carneades are explicated, those of Antiochus will all collapse
together. I will, however, say nothing such that anyone might suspect
me of making it up. I shall take it from Clitomachus who was with
Carneades until his old age-[Clitomachus was] a sharp man, a Carthagi-
nian, and exceedingly studious and hard working. There are four books