Abraham H. Maslow used a holistic approach in developing his theory of motivation. (UPI/Corbis
Bettmann)ty, belongingness, and esteem. Only when these
needs have been satisfied can humans fully realize
their potential. In realizing their potential and
achieving everything they are capable of, an individu-
al becomes a self-actualized person.
Among Maslow’s better known works are Motiva-
tion and Personality and Toward a Psychology of Being.
Maslow also published over a hundred articles and
book chapters on a variety of topics.
See also: THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Bibliography
Hoffman, E. The Right to Be Human: A Biography of Abraham Maslow.
Los Angeles: Tarcher, 1988.
Publications by Maslow
‘‘A Theory of Human Motivation.’’ Psychological Review 50
(1943):370–396.
Toward a Psychology of Being, 2nd edition. New York: VanNostrand/
Reinhold, 1968.
Motivation and Personality, 3rd edition, edited by Robert Frager,
James Fadiman, and Ruth Cox. New York: Harper and Row,
1987.
Jennifer S. Feenstra
MATERNAL AGE
Extremes of maternal age are associated with adverse
outcomes in pregnancy. Age at the time of delivery of
less than sixteen years or greater than thirty-five years
meets the criteria for this definition. Young women
have a higher incidence of premature delivery, high
blood pressure, and small infants. In women over age
thirty-five, chronic diseases such as diabetes and high
blood pressure become more common. In addition,
the aging of the developing eggs in the ovary is associ-
ated with an increased risk for spontaneous miscar-
riage and the birth of infants with chromosomal
abnormalities such as Down syndrome and Edwards
syndrome. As an example, at age thirty-five a
woman’s risk for the delivery of an infant with Down
syndrome is 1 in 378; by age forty-five this risk has in-
creased dramatically to 1 in 30. Tests that sample the
amniotic fluid around the developing fetus (amnio-
centesis) or sample a small part of the placenta (chori-
onic villus biopsy) can be undertaken to determine if
the chromosomal makeup of the fetus is normal.See also: BIRTH; BIRTH DEFECTS; MILESTONES OF
DEVELOPMENT; PREGNANCYBibliography
Bobrowski, Renee, and Sidney Bottoms. ‘‘Underappreciated Risks
of the Elderly Multipara.’’ American Journal of Obstetrics and Gy-
necology 172 (1995):1764–1767.
Hook, Ernest, Philip Cross, and Dina Schreinemachers. ‘‘Chromo-
somal Abnormality Rates at Amniocentesis and Live-Born In-
fants.’’ Journal of the American Medical Association 249
(1983):2034–2038.
Satin, Andrew, Kenneth Leveno, Lynne Sherman, Nancy Reedy,
Thomas Lowe, and Donald McIntire. ‘‘Maternal Youth and
Pregnancy Outcomes: Middle School versus High School AgeMATERNAL AGE 247