kwashiorkor, characterized by inadequate protein in-
take.
Inadequate maternal nutrition can affect fetal de-
velopment. Although the body reserves of the mother
are used to meet fetal growth needs, they cannot al-
ways insulate the fetus from dietary deficiencies. In-
adequate nutrition can lead to a decrease in actual cell
number and in cell size or growth. Cell number in-
creases early in pregnancy; in the third trimester, size
or growth of cells increases rapidly, along with num-
ber, and nutrient requirements are high. This active
process continues after birth until one to two years of
age. Restrictions that lead to decreased cell size can
be reversed, but when the increase in cell number
stops, it may be permanent.
See also: MARASMUS; MATURATION; MOTOR
DEVELOPMENT; NUTRITION
Bibliography
Boyle, Marie A., and Diane H. Morris. Community Nutrition in Ac-
tion: An Entrepreneurial Approach. St. Paul, MN: West Publish-
ing, 1994.
Mahan, L. Kathleen, and Sylvia Escott-Stump. Krause’s Food, Nutri-
tion, and Diet Therapy, 9th edition. Orlando, FL: Saunders,
1996.
Worthington-Roberts, Bonnie, and Sue Rodwell Williams. Nutrition
throughout the Life Cycle. New York: McGraw Hill, 2000.
Nicole B. Knee
Janice Dodds
MARASMUS
Marasmus is a form of emaciation and wasting in an
infant due to protein-energy malnutrition. It is char-
acterized by growth retardation in weight more than
height so that the head appears quite large relative to
the body. There is a progressive wasting of subcutane-
ous fat and muscle so that the skin appears loose. Se-
vere prolonged marasmus may result in permanent
retardation. Marasmus is common in Third World
countries in situations with poor access to protein-rich
food sources or where unsanitary water is associated
with severe infant diarrhea and a corollary inability to
absorb nutrients. The term ‘‘marasmus’’ is also used
as roughly equivalent to ‘‘anaclitic depression,’’ a
term coined by René Spitz to refer to children who
suffer from the early loss of a mother without a suit-
able substitute. Thus, marasmus has come to be asso-
ciated with parental abuse or neglect that results in a
failure to thrive. In some cases parents are unin-
formed regarding nutritional or emotional needs of
children or are unable to provide sustenance because
of poverty. In other cases such failure to thrive stems
from emotional deprivation as a result of parental
withdrawal, rejection, or hostility. It is hypothesized
that the emotional experiences of the child lead to
shifts in the production of growth hormone.See also: FAILURE TO THRIVEBibliography
Bennett, S. ‘‘Failure to Thrive.’’ Paediatrics and Child Health 1
(1996):206–210.
Frongillo, Edward A. Protein-Energy Malnutrition. Vevey, Switzer-
land: Nestle Nutrition, 1999.
Giardino, Angelo P. A Practical Guide to the Evaluation of Child Abuse
and Neglect. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997.
Olson, Roberta A. The Sourcebook of Pediatric Psychology. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon, 1994.
Larry P. NucciMASLOW, ABRAHAM H. (1908–1970)
Abraham Maslow is best known for his work on a theo-
ry of motivation and for his enormous impact on hu-
manistic psychology, also known as the third force in
psychology. Born April 1, 1908, in Brooklyn, New
York, to Russian-Jewish immigrant parents, Maslow
was the oldest of seven children. He attended City
College of New York and Cornell University before
transferring, in 1928, to the University of Wisconsin.
During this time he married Bertha Goodman, with
whom he would have two daughters. At the University
of Wisconsin Maslow studied primate behavior, work-
ing with Harry Harlow, the experimental psycholo-
gist who became famous for his work with attachment
behavior and baby rhesus monkeys. Maslow received
his A.B. in 1930, his M.A. in 1931, and his Ph.D. in- He worked as a Carnegie Fellow at Columbia
University before accepting a position at Brooklyn
College, where he taught and researched from 1937
to 1951. In 1951 he accepted a position at Brandeis
University, where he remained until 1969. He served
as president of the American Psychological Associa-
tion from 1967 to 1968. After leaving Brandeis, Mas-
low worked as Resident Fellow at the W. Price
Laughlin Charitable Foundation in California until
his death of a massive heart attack on June 8, 1970.
Maslow is best known for his work in the area of
motivation. Overall, he wanted to emphasize what was
positive about humans, rather than focusing on the
negative or deficient. Maslow used a holistic ap-
proach, which emphasizes the individual as a com-
plete being rather than a collection of separate, and
possibly disparate, components. He developed a the-
ory of motivation that placed human needs into a hi-
erarchy. This hierarchy of needs theory posits that
every person must fulfill the most basic needs first,
with other needs being addressed after lower needs
are satisfied. Physiological needs such as oxygen and
food are at the base of the hierarchy, followed by safe-
246 MARASMUS