wrote that the prevalence of sexual minority youth
(e.g., gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender) was unde-
termined. Yet it is important to consider sexual orien-
tation in relation to other sexual risk behaviors and
adolescent health in general. Sexually active gay ado-
lescents are at particular risk for HIV infection. In
1999, according to the CDC, 46 percent of reported
HIV infections among adolescent males (ages thir-
teen to nineteen) were attributed to male-to-male sex-
ual contact. In addition to medical risks, the DHHS
found that lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth face dis-
crimination, hatred, isolation, and an increased risk
for suicide.
It is evident that adolescents can and do take a
great number of sexual risks. Unprotected inter-
course has the ability to create life (pregnancy) or to
end life (HIV infection). Fortunately, researchers
have found a number of relevant avenues of preven-
tion. These include addressing factors related to
neighborhoods (e.g., socioeconomic status, jobless-
ness), peers (e.g., sexually active friends), families
(e.g., family instability, single-parent households, sib-
ling sexual activity), and individuals (e.g., academic
motivation, depression). Adolescents certainly have
much to gain through more comprehensive preven-
tion efforts.
See also: ADOLESCENCE; SEX EDUCATION
Bibliography
Alan Guttmacher Institute. Sex and America’s Teenagers. New York:
Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1994.
Alan Guttmacher Institute. Facts in Brief: Teen Sex and Pregnancy.
New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1999.
Alan Guttmacher Institute. Teenage Pregnancy: Overall Trends and
State-by-State Information. New York: Alan Guttmacher Insti-
tute, 1999.
Bidwell, Robert. ‘‘Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.’’ In
Stanford Friedman, Martin Fisher, S. K. Schonberg, and E.
M. Alderman eds., Comprehensive Adolescent Health Care. St.
Louis, MO: Mosby Publishing Service, 1998.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ‘‘Fact Sheet: Youth
Risk Behavior Trends from CDC’s 1991, 1993, 1995, 1997,
and 1999 Youth Risk Behavior Surveys.’’ In the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention [web site]. Atlanta, Georgia,
- Available from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/yrbs/
trend.htm; INTERNET.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Pre-
vention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 1999. Atlan-
ta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, - Available from http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/dstd/
Stats_Trends/1999SurvRpt.htm; INTERNET.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of HIV/AIDS
Prevention. Need for Sustained HIV Prevention among Men Who
Have Sex with Men. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 2000. Available from http://
http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/facts/msm.htm; INTERNET.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of HIV/AIDS
Prevention. Young People at Risk: HIV/AIDS among America’s
Youth. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 2000. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/
facts/youth.htm; INTERNET.
Henshaw, Stanley. ‘‘Unintended Pregnancy in the United States.’’
Family Planning Perspectives 30 (1998):24–29.
Murphy, Sherry. ‘‘Deaths: Final Data for 1998.’’ National Vital Sta-
tistics Report 48, no. 11. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 2000. Avail-
able from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvs48_11.pdf; IN-
TERNET.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Report of the Secre-
tary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide. Washington, DC: U.S. De-
partment of Health and Human Services, 1989.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People
2010: Objective 25: Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000.
Ventura, Stephanie, Joyce Martin, Sally Curtin, T. J. Matthews, and
Melissa Park. ‘‘Births: Final Data for 1998.’’ National Vital Sta-
tistics Report 48, no. 3. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 1998. Avail-
able from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvs48_3.pdf; INTER-
NET.
Laurie L. Meschke
Elyse ChadwickSHYNESS
When an infant or toddler is confronted with strang-
ers, either adults or children, an initial reaction of ret-
icence and withdrawal is generally accepted and
understood. Being cautious with strangers, animal or
human, served for millions of years as a built-in safety
device and was advantageous for survival. But from
age three or four onward, most parents in modern so-
cieties like to see their children overcome their natu-
ral inhibitory tendencies soon after being introduced
to other people. Cultures differ in their acceptance of
shyness. In the United States, having an outgoing
personality is highly valued, and thus parents worry
when their child is socially inhibited by temperament,
fearful when confronted by strangers, says as little as
possible when in the company of unfamiliar people,
and prefers playing alone. In other cultures, such as
in Sweden, shy, reserved behavior is preferred to
bold, attention-getting behavior, and consequently
shyness is seen as less of a problem. In both cultures
however, when people who were shy as children be-
come adults, they tend to marry a few years later than
adults who were not shy in childhood.See also: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT; SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENTBibliography
Kerr, Margaret, William Lambert, and Daryl Bem. ‘‘Life Course Se-
quelae of Childhood Shyness in Sweden: Comparison with the
United States.’’ Developmental Psychology 32 (1995):1100–
1105.362 SHYNESS