Aside from his sons, he had few followers until
the modern period. In the 20th century, Arabic
publishers in Beirut and Cairo issued print edi-
tions of several of his books on law, theology, and
medicine. This was a result of renewed interest in
his thought that came with increased interaction
with Europe and a movement to reform Islam in
conformity with modern notions of rationality. A
revived interest in Ibn Rushd is also reflected in
the feature film Destiny (al-Masir, 1997), directed
by the Egyptian filmmaker Youssef Chahine (b.
1926). The film depicts Ibn Rushd as a respected
scholar and family man contending with political
authoritarianism and religious fanaticism, a reality
faced by many in the world today.
Further reading: Iysa A. Bello, The Medieval Islamic
Controversy between Philosophy and Theology: Ijma and
Tawil in the Conflict between al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd
(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989); Oliver Leaman, Averroes
and His Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1988); Caroline Stone, “Doctor, Philosopher, Renais-
sance Man.” Saudi Aramco World 54 (May/June 2003):
8–15.
Ibn Saud See abd al-aziz ibn saUd.
Ibn Sina, Abu Ali al-Husayn (Latin as
Avicenna) (979–1037) gifted Persian philosopher
and physician whose writings were widely studied in
the Middle East and Europe
More is known about Ibn Sina’s early life than
about most other medieval Muslim scholars
because he wrote an aUtobiography about his
youth, supplemented with details about his adult
career contributed by later Muslim biographers.
He was born in a village near bUkhara (now in
Uzbekistan) and educated under the supervision
of his father, a learned man with Ismaili affilia-
tions. Ibn Sina is thought to have had a remark-
able memory. He claims that by the age of 10 he
had memorized the qUran and large amounts of
Arabic poetry. Soon thereafter, he studied several
highly complex subjects, including logic, Islamic
law (fiqh), and the metaphysics of Aristotle, as
explained by the Turkish philosopher al-Farabi
(d. 950). He also studied Neoplatonic philosophy,
which was held in high esteem by Ismaili schol-
ars such as the brethren oF pUrity. Because he
was allowed free access to the royal library of the
Samanid dynasty (819–999), he was able to edu-
cate himself so well that he boasted of becoming a
teacher to the tutors hired by his father to educate
him. By the time he had turned 21, he had already
become famous for his medical knowledge and
healing skills and had written his first book on
philosophy.
When his father died in 1002, Ibn Sina left
Bukhara and traveled westward, finding tempo-
rary employment in the courts of several local
rulers. He continued to teach and write while
serving in government posts. Around 1020, Ibn
Sina became a court physician to the Shii ruler
Shams al-Dawla (r. 997–1021) in Hamadan in
western iran. He was imprisoned in 1022 as
a result of political intrigues but managed to
escape to Isfahan in the south, where he was pro-
tected by Ala al-Dawla Muhammad (r. 1008–41),
the local ruler. Isfahan was his home for 15
years, where he continued his scholarly activi-
ties and completed writing his major works. He
died in the company of Ala al-Dawla while on a
military expedition. He was buried in Hamadan,
where a monumental tomb memorializes his
contributions to Islamic philosophy, medicine,
and science.
Estimates concerning the number of books
and treatises he wrote range from 100 to 250.
Most of them were written in Arabic, even though
his native language was Persian. Among the most
exhaustive of his works on philosophical and reli-
gious subjects was Kitab al-shifa (The Book of Heal-
ing). It dealt with four chief topics: logic, physics,
mathematics, and metaphysics. The chapters on
physics included substantial discussion about
the nature of the human soul and its relation toK 338 Ibn Saud