Yankee Mohammedan,” Webb also spoke about
Islam in private homes and at public speaking
engagements around the country. Webb’s mission
and publishing center lacked sufficient funding,
and, by 1896, he ended the mission and moved to
Rutherford, New Jersey, where he again worked as
a journalist. In 1901, in recognition of his advo-
cacy of Islam in general and his defense of Turkey
in particular, Webb was named honorary Turk-
ish consul to New York. He traveled to Istanbul
where Sultan Abdulhamid II (r. 1876–1909) gave
him the third Order of Medjidie and the Medal of
Merit, as well as the honorific title of Bey. Webb
died on October 1, 1916.
See also conversion; daa wa; mohammedanism;
United states.
Kate O’HalloranFurther reading: Umar F. Abd-Allah, A Muslim in
Victorian America: The Life of Alexander Russell Webb
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Moham-
med Alexander Russell Webb, Yankee Muslim: The
Asian Travels of Mohammed Alexander Russell Webb
(Rockville, Md.: Wildside Press, 2006); Mohammed
Alexander Russell Webb, Islam in America: A Brief
Statement of Mohammedanism and an Outline of the
American Islamic Propaganda (New York: Oriental
Publishing, 1893).
West Africa
islam entered West Africa within the first decade
after the death of the prophet mUhammad (d.
632), when Muslim armies set out westward
from egypt. The first arab expeditions were
launched across the Sahara in the eighth century,
although no permanent Muslim presence seems
to have been established in sub-Saharan Africa
until 200 years later. That presence was brought
about through the efforts of Muslim traders, who
engaged in business along the lucrative Saharan
caravan routes, and who introduced their Faith to
West African businessmen and tribal chiefs.
In the late 11th century, the West African king-
dom of Ghana is said to have converted to Islam
through the influence of the Berber almoravid
dynasty. By the 14th century Muslim chiefs ruled
over the Kingdom of Mali, the best known of whom,
Mansa Musa (r. 1307–32), made the pilgrimage to
mecca in 1324. The rise of Islamic influence in West
Africa continued under the Songhay dynasty, which
ruled over vast domains centered on the Niger River
during the 15th and 16th centuries. The Songhay
(Songhai) Empire included timbUktU, known as the
“city of scholars,” a location renowned throughout
the region for Islamic jurisprudence.
By the 18th century, West Africa was impacted
by European colonial expansion. European pur-
suit of raw materials, gold, and slaves stimulated
Islamic revival movements that resulted in the
“Jihad states” of West Africa during the 18th and
19th centuries. The leaders of these states empha-
sized Islamic education and sought to purify
society, replacing non-Islamic practices with laws
and cultural norms deemed to be more faithful to
Islam. During this period, Islam was transformed
from the religion of the political and religious elite
to becoming the faith of the masses. sUFi orders
such as the Qadiriyya and the Tijaniyya were also
instrumental in popularizing the Islamic faith
by creating a synthesis between African cultural
practices and Islamic principles.
Ironically, European colonial rule instituted
changes during the late 19th and early 20th cen-
turies that also aided the spread of Islam. The
influence of Muslim religious leaders expanded as
they gained credibility for their heroic resistance to
colonial repression. In addition, the creation of new
urban centers consisting of people uprooted from
traditional tribal life caused many seekers to turn
to Islam for identity and comfort. During the post-
colonial era, the maliki legal school continues
to dominate West African Islam and the many Sufi
orders are also very influential. Revivalist move-
ments originating in the Middle East have increas-
ingly influenced West Africans. Such influences
have frequently heightened tensions with ChristianWest Africa 709 J