(Santa Barbara, Calif.: Fithian Press, 1996); Wendell
Thomas, Hinduism Invades America (New York: Bea-
con Press, 1930); W. S. Urquhart, Vedanta and Modern
Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1928);
Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi (Bom-
bay: Jaico Publishing House, 1946).
untouchability
The concept of untouchability has long played
a role in the Hindu CASTE system of socioeco-
nomic organization. Members of certain low-
status castes were considered polluting and not
allowed to touch any person of the upper castes,
particularly BRAHMINS and members of the warrior
and merchant castes. This practice was exagger-
ated even further in parts of South India, where
certain people were considered unseeable and had
to stay out of sight of the upper castes.
The history of untouchability no doubt tracks
the rise of ARYAN cultural domination of India.
There is evidence to suggest that certain tribal
groups and peoples last integrated into the Aryan
fold became classified as “out-castes” or the “fifth
caste” (where the Aryans had a fourfold class
system from great antiquity). The custom is sup-
ported by a very complex social conception of
“POLLUTION” related to occupation. Purity is seen
to reside in certain types of activity such as teach-
ing and recitation of the VEDAS, and in habits such
as VEGETARIANISM, while such essential social tasks
as sweeping, the collecting of refuse, the removal
of carrion animals, and the production of leather
are considered severely polluting.
Caste, more properly jati, or birth, is in fact
directly related in most cases to occupation, so
untouchability is generally conferred by birth.
(However, certain polluting situations within the
family context, such as having someone recently
die in the household, make any person, whatever
the caste, polluting or “untouchable” for a limited
time.)
It should be noted that almost all of the major
freedom fighters in India who sought indepen-
dence from Britain denounced the notion of caste
and called for the abolition of untouchability.
MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI was most notable
in this regard. He coined the term harijan (those
born of God) to relieve the stigma from untouch-
ables. The constitution of India was written by an
untouchable (who also became a Buddhist), Dr.
Babasaheb R. Ambedkar (1891–1956). In the set-
ting up of India’s central and state governments,
untouchables were given designated quotas of
positions, including parliamentary seats, to guar-
antee their advancement.
Today, India’s untouchables have taken an
increasingly militant political stance. They prefer
to call themselves Dalit (the oppressed). Many of
them have converted to Buddhism, following Dr.
Ambedkar’s conversion in late life. Buddhism was
always opposed to caste notions and preached
spiritual equality.Further reading: B. R. Ambedkar, What Congress and
Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchables (Bombay: Thacker,
1946); Mark Jurgensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The
Movement against Untouchability in 20th Century Pun-
jab (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); J.
Michael Mahar, ed., The Untouchables in Contemporary
India (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1972); Elea-
nor Zelliot, “Dalit—New Cultural Context of an Old
Marathi Word,” in Clarence Maloney, ed., Language and
Civilization Change in South Asia. Vol. 11, Contributions
to Asian Studies (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978), pp. 77–97.upanayana See SACRED THREAD.
Upanishads
There are thousands of texts referred to in Indian
tradition as Upanishads. They all take this name
to gain the authority of the original Upanishads,
about 14 in number, which are considered part
of the BRAHMANA or commentaries that are asso-
ciated with the four VEDAS. (Each of the four is
divided into a MANTRA portion, which consists ofUpanishads 471 J