Sufism’s relationship to, 201, 204;
superiority of, 239; theological devel-
opment of, 110–11; unity in, 138–39,
239–40, 248; universality of, 138, 237;
as warrior religion, 78–79. See also
Muslims
Islamic Association ( Jama‘at-i Islami), 138,
227–28, 246, 256
Islamic Jihad, 246
Islamic Reformation: and democracy,
253–54, 258–59, 260–61; in Iran,
249–54, 257, 260, 261, 265; and parti-
tioning of lands, 255–56, 263; and sec-
ularism, 258–59; and sovereignty, 252,
265
Islamism, 239–40. See also Wahhabism
Islamization of society, 236
Ismail ( Ja‘far’s son), 185
Ismail (Safavid ruler), 187, 188, 190
Ismail (son of Abraham), 4, 117, 179, 182
Ismailis (Seveners), 185–86
isnad (chain of transmission), 67, 163, 164
Israel, 262
Jacob, 10, 64, 117
Ja‘far as-Sadiq, Imam, 166, 184, 185
Jafari School, 184–85
Jafri, Husain, 179
Jahiliyyah (“Time of Ignorance”), 5, 8, 13,
18, 239
Jahmites, 152
Jerusalem, 100–101, 122, 135, 173, 201
Jesus: demonization of Jews as killers of,
103; as Gospels’ inspiration, 35; and
Hebrew Scriptures, 183; and influ-
ences on Muhammad, 17, 101; Jews
refusal to recognize Islam as alternative
to, 96; Ka‘ba image of, 3, 12, 106; and
Mahdi, 186; miracles of, 156; and
Montanist Christianity, 11; Muham-
mad compared with, 21, 98, 216;
Muhammad’s views about, 101, 103,
106; and Orthodox Trinitarians, 101,
102; as prophet, 19, 34, 182; and
prophetic consciousness as evolving
process, 37; and Sufism, 205, 215–16;
topoi about, 21; and Trinity doctrine, 11
Jews/Judaism: Babylonian Exile of, 9; in
Byzantium, 94; and Christianity, 183;
demonization of, 103; expulsion from
Medina of, 94; and fasting, 147–48;
historical information about, 22; influ-
ence on Muhammad/Islam of, 17–18,
44, 95, 97, 99–101, 102–3, 147–48;
Islam as alternative to, 96; and Islam’s
Index 301anti-Jewish sentiments, 92; lamentation
in, 178; in Medina, 89–94, 96–97, 102;
and monotheism, 10; Muhammad’s
views about, 93, 94, 95–99, 100–101,
102–4, 262; and Muhammad’s views
about marriage, 63; Muslim relations
with, 53, 93–104, 137; as “orthopraxic”
religion, 144; and paganism, 9–10, 12,
13, 22; and “People of the Book,” 100;
persecution of, 94; in pre-Islamic Ara-
bia, 9–10, 12, 13, 17–18, 22, 40; prose-
lytizing by, 95; protection taxes for,
94–95, 147; and Quran, 97, 99; and
Quraysh-Muhammad conflict, 76, 89;
and religious pluralism in Islam, 262; in
Spain, 95; in Syria, 122; and Umar, 93;
as unbelievers, 103; and women, 71; in
Yathrib, 54–55, 56–57; Zoroastrian
influence on, 12. See also Muslim-Jewish
relations; specific clan or person
jihad, 79–81, 84–88, 243–44, 260
Jinn, 7, 8, 44
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 256
John the Baptist, 22, 103, 216
Jordan, 236, 257
“just war” theory, 87
Ka‘ba: and Abyssinian attack on Mecca, 18;
Allah as not represented in, 8; Black
Stone at, 9–10; burning of, 178; as cen-
ter of religious life in pre-Islamic Ara-
bia, 3–4, 5, 25–26; charity of, 33–34;
and Christianity, 11–12; circumambula-
tions of, 5, 8, 17, 24, 25, 149; descrip-
tion of, 3, 24, 148–49; and Five Pillars,
148–49; and Hanifism, 14, 22, 44, 88;
historical evidence about, 27–28; as
“House of God,” 106; Hubal as central
deity of, 8; Jesus’s image in, 3, 12, 106;
Jewish influence on, 9–10; and Layla
and Majnun legend, 195; and Mecca as
special, 27; and Mu‘awiyah caliphate,
175; Muhammad gets keys to, 49; and
Muhammad as reformer, 44; Muham-
mad smashes idols in, 106; and Muham-
mad’s pilgrimage to Mecca, 105; and
Muhammad’s return to Mecca, 106;
Muhammad’s views about, 44–45;
myths about, 9; as “navel spot,” 5; ori-
gins of, 4–5, 9; and poetry, 156–57;
pre-Islamic, 23–32; Qurans/Quran
verses in, 148–49, 159; Quraysh
control of, 25–26; and Quraysh-
Muhammad conflict, 44, 45, 46, 88,
105; rediscovery/rebuilding of, 4, 10;