Brand Management: Research, theory and practice

perspective is usually found in the messages and activities initiated by top
management to create and enhance organizational culture.
The differentiationperspective represents a more interpretive approach. The
differentiation perspective assumes that cultural consensus exists within
different subcultures and groupings, but not on an organization-wide level. The
manifestations of organizational culture are hence not consistent throughout the
organization. Ambiguity and the drivers of organizational culture are to be found
in the consistency within subgroups and in the ambiguity distinguishing these
different subgroups.
In the third, and last, perspective of fragmentation the more constructivist
perspective is represented. Here, it is assumed that an organizational culture can
display a multitude of views. In the fragmentation perspective, there is no
consensus and the relation between manifestations of organizational culture is
complex. Only a combination of the three levels – the whole organization,
subgroups and individual level of research – can give an accurate and complete
snapshot of the cultural web and drivers of organizational culture.
In practice, the data collection focuses on the manifestations of organizational
culture expressed through a combination of different elements. These elements
illustrate that not only is it essential to encompass different perspectives in a
research plan to ensure a deep and full understanding; grasping organizational
culture also requires breadth. The manifestations form the cultural web of mani-
festations that in combination define a specific organizational culture.
Organizational culture is best studied qualitatively and through embedding
oneself in the cultural settings. The researcher must seek detailed and holistic
descriptions based on intensive fieldwork to ensure understanding of how the
cultural manifestations express a certain organizational identity. Since intensive
fieldwork can be time-consuming, the ethnographic approach can adopt a clinical

The identity approach 67

Manifestations

of organizational

identity

Stories/jargon Power

Structures

Symbols

Organizational

structures

Rituals/Routines/

Practices

Control systems

Figure 5.7Manifestations of organizational identity (culture)