Food Biochemistry and Food Processing (2 edition)

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30 Non-Enzymatic Browning in Cookies, Crackers and Breakfast Cereals 589

HHO

H

H

H

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H

O

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H H

β-Piranose α-Piranose

α-Furanose

β-Furanose

H H H H H H H H

H

H

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O

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H H

H

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H H

H

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CO

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CHOH

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Figure 30.2.Anomeric forms of maltulose.

FIC values and other heat-induced markers. Recently, Calvarro

et al. (2009) reported a new methodology to monitor Maillard-

derived fluorescent compounds (FC) in cookies by flow-injection

analysis. Ratio between total and free FC was proposed as refer-

ence for setting the limits to the appropriate range of processing

and to avoid over-processing. Because of the significant correla-

tion with acrylamide levels, this methodology is also proposed

for estimation of acrylamide formed in cookies.

Acrylamide

For almost 8 years now, a significant amount of research ac-

tivities has focused on the mitigation of the formation of the

‘probable carcinogen to human’, acrylamide (2-propenamide),

in a number of fried and oven-cooked foods (IARC 1994, Jensen

et al. 2008). One of the possible mechanisms involved in the

acrylamide formation is the reaction between asparagine and

reducing sugars such as glucose or fructose via MR (Mottram

et al. 2002, Weisshaar and Gutsche 2002, Courel et al. 2009).

Since asparagine is a major amino acid in cereals, the possi-

ble formation of acrylamide in cereal-based foods should be

considered.

Variable amounts of acrylamide have been found in cereal-

based foods such as bread, cookies, crackers, biscuits and break-

fast cereals (Yoshida et al. 2002, Ono et al. 2003, Riediker and

Stadler 2003, Delatour et al. 2004, Taeymans et al. 2004, Rufi ́an-

Henares et al. 2006b, Sadd et al. 2008).

The presence of acrylamide, together with that of other un-

desirable Maillard compounds, such as furosine, HMF, car-

boxymethyllysine, has been related to formulation and process-

ing conditions of model systems of cookies (Courel et al. 2009)

and crackers (Levine and Smith 2005). In general, baking con-

ditions, the selected leavening agent and addition of asparagine

to the formula were identified as the most significant sources

of variability (including those contributing either to the for-

mation or elimination) of acrylamide. In a similar approach

by Rufian-Henares et al. (2006b), the relationship among lev- ́

els of acrylamide and compositional parameters (type of cereal

and protein and dietary fibre contents) of commercial break-

fast cereals was shown. In addition, no significant relationship

between acrylamide and classical browning indicators such as

HMF, furosine or coloured compounds was found in the com-

mercial samples analysed. However, it could be feasible that this

relation become significant for samples processed at industrial/