Special report Stabilising the climate
TheEconomistOctober30th 2021 3
The biggest picture
S
ome1,500 years before the birth of Christ, when the chariots of
Ahmose I, the first pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, had brought all
of Egypt back under the rule of Thebes, the level of carbon dioxide
in Earth’s atmosphere was about 277 parts per million (ppm).
When the Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment under the
Bodhi Tree a millennium later, and when Socrates drained his cup
of hemlock a century after that, the level of CO 2 had hardly
changed at all. It was barely different when the Tang dynasty in
China and the first Muslim caliphate arose in the 7th century ad,
or when the Aztec empire fell to the conquistadors nine centuries
later on the other side of the world. For most of history the compo
sition of Earth’s atmosphere has been as unchanging a backdrop to
the human drama as the arrangement of its continents, or the face
of its Moon.
In the middle of the 19th century that changed. Very quickly by
historical standards, and instantaneously by geological ones, the
CO 2 level began to rise. Having stayed between 275ppm and
285ppm for millennia, by the 1910s it had reached 300ppm. By
2020 it was 412ppm (see chart on next page). In a century or so a
crucial aspect of Earth’s workings had undergone a change 100
times greater than had previously been seen in a millennium.
An equally sudden shift in the background arrangement of the
continents would have been a lot more noticeable. But it might not
have been much more consequential. Although the way in which
the atmosphere’s carbondioxide level affects the planet’s biology,
chemistry, and physics does not in itself shuffle the tectonic
plates, it changes the world in which they sit.
More carbon dioxide means more plant growth. In the 30 years
from 1980 to 2009 satellite observations revealed that between a
quarter and a half of the plantcovered surface of Earth—an area
between those of Africa and of Asia and Europe combined—grew
noticeably greener. Plants were flourishing on the CO 2 enriched
air, adding tens of billions of tonnes to the planet’s biomass. The
oceans, for their part, have grown more acidic after absorbing
some of the atmosphere’s sudden CO 2 surplus. It is as though ten
rivers of pure battery acid the size of the Thames have emptied
themselves into the seas.
And then there is the physics. Carbon dioxide absorbs infrared
radiation. It is by emitting infrared radiation that the surface of
Earth cools itself down. More CO 2 in the atmosphere makes this
process harder, so it means a warmer Earth. The increase in CO 2
since the mid19th century has, in concert with industrial and ag
ricultural production and the release of other greenhouse gases
such as methane, nitrous oxide and industrial gases like cfcs and
hcfcs, increased the planet’s average surface temperature by be
tween 1.1°C and 1.2°C.
This has already had an adverse effect on crop yields which
outstrips any of the benefits from a higher level of CO 2. It is in
creasing the frequency, intensity and duration of droughts and
heat waves. It has made large tracts of permafrost impermanent,
gobbled up mountain glaciers and reduced the area of multiyear
ice on the Arctic Ocean by 90%. It is destabilising the great ice
There has never been a collective human endeavour more ambitious than stabilising the climate. In this special report our
journalists assess what it will take to meet the historic goals agreed on in Paris six years ago