of Mazu Daoyi, and a considerable number of Silla
monks, including To ̆ui (d. 825), came to study with
Daoyi and his pupils. However, once they returned to
Korea, their teachings met strong resistance from the
established forms of Buddhism.
Therefore, after earlier abortive attempts to intro-
duce Chan, when To ̆ui returned in 821 with Mazu
Chan, he experienced much opposition, and took
Chan into the mountains and away from the court.
Eight lineage founders studied under Daoyi’s heirs;
only one under Caodong. Most had studied teachings
of the HUAYAN SCHOOL(Korean, Hwao ̆m), the domi-
nant doctrinal tradition in Silla Korea, but were
dissatisfied with its abstruse and impractical scholasti-
cism. These lineages were collectively called kusan(the
NINEMOUNTAINS SCHOOL OFSO ̆N) from 1084.
The Five Houses were imported early in the Koryo ̆
dynasty (918–1392), and King Kwangjong (r. 950–975)
introduced the Fayan house (Korean, Po ̆ban) by send-
ing thirty-six monks to study with the Chan monk
Yanshou in China. The monk U ̆ICH’O ̆N(1055–1101)
founded the Tiantai (Korean, Ch’o ̆nt’ae) school to
overcome the rivalry of So ̆n and Hwao ̆m deeming that
iconoclastic So ̆n needed doctrinal foundations. Many
Po ̆ban monks joined U ̆ich’o ̆n, and this, plus corrup-
tion in the san ̇gha, weakened So ̆n.
Consequently, CHINUL(1158–1210) was moved to
revitalize So ̆n by combining it with Hwao ̆m philoso-
phy to provide a doctrinal base, inspired by the ideas
of Zongmi. Unable to make a pilgrimage to the main-
land to study with Chinese masters, Chinul was suc-
cessively enlightened by his own reading of the
Platform Sutra,a commentary on the Huayan jingby
Li Tongxuan (635–730), and by reading the works of
Zonggao on hwadu(Chinese, huatou). Hwaduwas for
able students; lesser lights could adopt Zongmi’s sud-
den enlightenment followed by gradual cultivation to
remove residual habits. Subsequently, hwadupractice
predominated, and the Linji style prevailed among the
sixteen generations of successors at Chinul’s monastery
on Chogyesan, something reinforced once the Mon-
gols forcibly reopened communications with China.
Koryo ̆monks, particularly T’aego Pou (1301–1382)
and Naong Hyegu ̆n (1320–1376), who wanted to im-
prove hwadupractice, sought confirmation of their en-
lightenment within the lineage of Wuzu Fayan (1024–
1104). They attempted to unite the kusanunder the
name of the Chogye order. They also tried to enforce
monastic disciple through the state, but the san ̇gha’s
corruption and the weakness of Koryo ̆allowed the rise
of the anti-Buddhist Choso ̆n dynasty (1392–1910) and
a fundamentalist neo-Confucianism.Initially the new Choso ̆n rulers did not persecute
Buddhism, which had several able So ̆n monk defend-
ers. Restrictions increased, and King Sejong (r.
1419–1450) forcibly combined the Chogye, Ch’o ̆nt’ae,
and another school into the So ̆njong. Under later kings
the repression was so severe that the So ̆n lineage may
have been severed. All current lineages allegedly revert
to Pyo ̆kkye Cho ̆ngsim (late fifteenth century), who had
been compulsorily laicized. His master is unknown.
The result was controversy over whether later So ̆n was
descended from Pou via Cho ̆ngsim, or went back to
Chinul. The main descendant of Cho ̆ngsim, HYUJO ̆NG
(1520–1604), revived So ̆n’s fortunes by leading a monk
army against the invading Japanese in 1592.The revival was temporary, for soon the state herded
the monks into the mountains or conscripted them
into labor service. Zonggao’s ideas provided the best
defense against intolerant neo-Confucianism, allowing
So ̆n practice to dominate elite Choso ̆n dynasty Bud-
dhism, but at the cost of infiltration by Confucian val-
ues. So ̆n practice retreated increasingly into “lettered
Chan” and ritual, or Pure Land devotions. However,
Chinul’s ideas continued to have support, and several
important teachers tried to revive So ̆n.The Japanese annexation of Korea (1910–1945)
brought clashes between a pro-Japanese Soto Zen
clique and a traditionalist Korean Linji (Imje) faction,
and between modernizers like HANYONGUN(1879–
1944), who advocated married clergy, and conserva-
tive celibate monks who founded the So ̆n Academy in- The Chogye order, founded in 1941, included
pro-Japanese married clergy, as well as nationalistic
celibates, which led the non-celibates to form the
breakaway T’aego order in 1970. This also invoked the
old dispute over the founding patriarch of So ̆n, Chinul
or Pou, a controversy raised even later by the former
head of the Chogye order, T’oe’ong So ̆ngch’o ̆l (1912–
1993), who championed Pou and rejected Chinul’s
emblematic soteriology of sudden enlightenment fol-
lowed by gradual cultivation. For So ̆ngch’o ̆l, once one
has seen the nature and become buddha, gradual cul-
tivation is superfluous. In North Korea, all So ̆n clerics
are married and retired from the regular workforce,
being subservient to the state.
Japan (Zen).The Japanese Hosso (Yogacara) and
Tendai (Tiantai) schools, without understanding the
new meaning of chan, imported Chan cultivation as aCHANSCHOOL