ten display a tendency to render Buddhist ideas by re-
course to concepts from native Chinese thought. A case
in point is the putative method of “matching the mean-
ing” (geyi), which involved pairing of key Buddhist
terms with Chinese expressions primarily derived from
Daoist sources. While this hermeneutical strategy fa-
cilitated the wider diffusion of Buddhist texts and ideas
among educated Chinese, it was criticized by eminent
monks such as DAO’AN(312–385) as an obstacle to the
proper understanding of Buddhism.
The situation changed during the fifth century, in
large part because of the translation activities of KU-
MARAJIVA(350–409/413), arguably the most famous
and influential translator in the history of Chinese
Buddhism. Born in Kucha, Kumarajva arrived in the
capital of Chang’an in 401. With the generous support
of the court, which facilitated the formation of a trans-
lation bureau, Kumarajva and his assistants produced
a large number of readable translations of key Ma-
hayana scriptures and other exegetical works. As a tes-
timony to the success of Kumarajva’s efforts, most of
his translations remained the standard versions
throughout the history of Buddhism in East Asia. Ku-
marajva also taught a number of talented disciples
about the fine points of Mahayana doctrines, especially
the Madhyamaka philosophy of NAGARJUNA(ca. sec-
ond century C.E.).
A number of influential translators followed in Ku-
marajva’s footsteps, including PARAMARTHA(499–569),
whose translations of Yogacara texts served as a cata-
lyst for the huge Chinese interest in the doctrines of
this Indian school of Mahayana philosophy. One of
the last great translators was the famous Tang monk
XUANZANG(ca. 600–664). After returning from his cel-
ebrated PILGRIMAGEto India, where for many years
he studied at the main centers of Buddhist learning,
Xuanzang spent the last two decades of his life trans-
lating the numerous manuscripts he brought back to
China. His work was undertaken under imperial aus-
pices, and his numerous assistants included leading
Buddhist scholars. Despite their superior styling and
greater philological accuracy, Xuanzang’s translations
did not achieve the same widespread acceptance as Ku-
marajva’s translations.
In addition to the translations of canonical texts
from Sanskrit and other Indic languages, there was also
a large body of apocryphal texts composed in China
whose origins were concealed by presenting them as
translations of Indian texts. The Chinese APOCRYPHA
included both popular religious tracts as well as texts
that contained sophisticated explorations of doctrinal
themes. Works that belong to the first category in-
cluded apocryphal scriptures that dealt with popular
religious topics, such as moral principles, eschatolog-
ical and messianic beliefs, cultic practices, and preter-
natural powers. They often crossed the porous lines
separating Buddhism from popular beliefs, and be-
cause of that they were sometimes criticized by mem-
bers of the monastic elite. On the other end of the
spectrum, there were apocryphal texts dealing with
doctrinal issues, which exemplified Chinese appropri-
ations of Mahayana teachings that resonated with na-
tive intellectual concerns and ways of thinking. Even
though the problematic provenance of these texts was
frequently noted by medieval Buddhist cataloguers, a
good number of them achieved wide acclaim and be-
came part of the CANON.
Besides texts translated from foreign languages, the
Chinese Buddhist canon also came to include a large
number of texts composed by Chinese authors. These
texts are written in a number of genres and cover a
wide range of perspectives on diverse aspects of Bud-
dhist beliefs, doctrines, practices, and institutions.
They include exegetical works (especially commen-
taries on important scriptures), encyclopedias, collec-
tions of biographies of eminent monks, texts dealing
with monastic regulations and practices, meditation
and ritual manuals, historical works, and systematic
expositions of Sinitic doctrinal systems (such as
Huayan and Tiantai). A large part of the canon in-
cludes texts produced by the main schools of Chinese
Buddhism. An example of that type are the Chan
school’s records of sayings (yulu) and gong’an(Japan-
ese, KOAN) collections. In addition, there are a large
number of extracanonical works—such as collections
of miracle tales—that deal with popular Buddhist be-
liefs and practices. Buddhist themes and ideas can also
be found in secular literary works, such as the poems
of major Chinese poets, including Wang Wei
(701–761) and Bo Juyi (772–846) during the Tang, and
Su Shi (1037–1101) during the Song period.Schools and traditions
The study of Chinese Buddhism in terms of specific
“schools” (zong), an approach that has commonly been
adopted by scholars working in the field, is compli-
cated by the multivalent connotations of the Chinese
term zong.In the Buddhist context the term zongcan
mean a specific doctrine (or an interpretation of it),
an essential purport or teaching of a canonical text,
an exegetical tradition, or a religious group boundCHINA