been added over a long span of time. There is a volu-
minous commentary on the Dhammapadaexplaining
the wording of individual verses and adding stories on
the supposed occasion on which the Buddha is thought
to have uttered a verse. The Dhammapadawas the first
Pali text ever critically edited in Europe, by the Dan-
ish scholar Viggo Fausbøll (1821–1908) in 1855.
See also:Gandharl, Buddhist Literature in; Pali, Bud-
dhist Literature in
Bibliography
Burlingame, Eugene Watson, trans. Buddhist Legends,3 vols.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1921.
Carter, John Ross, and Paliwadana, Mahinda, trans. and eds.
The Dhammapada: A New English Translation.New York:
Oxford University Press, 1987.
Hinüber, Oskar von, and Norman, K. R., eds. Dhammapada.
Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1994.
Norman, K. R., trans. The Word of the Doctrine.Oxford: Pali
Text Society, 2000.
Osier, Jean-Pierre. Les stances de la loi. Paris: Garnier-
Flammarion, 1997.
OSKAR VONHINÜBERDHARANI
The term dharanl refers to spells, incantations, or
mnemonic codes, and literally means “to hold,” “to
support,” or “to maintain.” Originating in Vedic reli-
gion, dharanoften consist of incomprehensible com-
binations of syllables in Sanskrit. Buddhist dharan
may be long or short and are usually untranslatable.
Dharan comprise a large portion of the Buddhist
CANONof scripture and most of the important Ma-
hayana sutras conclude with or include sections on
dharan, for example the HEARTSUTRAand the LOTUS
SUTRA(SADDHARMAPUNDARIKA-SUTRA). Various types
of dharanare mentioned in Buddhist literature, for ex-
ample, mantra-dharan, by which a BODHISATTVAac-
quires charms to allay plagues, and mnemonic dharan,
by which a bodhisattva’s memory and perception are
enhanced to remember sutras or salient points of doc-
trine. In some texts the word dharanlalso appears in
compounds with the word mantra.
During the twentieth century Western scholars tried
to assert a precise distinction between dharanand
mantra by following the strict denotations of the terms.
Strictly speaking, dharanshould refer to memory aids
to hold, support, or protect something in the mind,
while mantra refer to syllabic formula, spells, and in-
cantations. However, in Buddhist hagiography monk-
thaumaturges do not make these distinctions, and in
Buddhist commentarial literature, monk-scholars clas-
sify dharaninto various types but always make pro-
vision for spell-type dharan. Also, dharancollections
contain many spells and procedures for their intended
use by laypersons.
The sounds of dharanare powerful of themselves
and generate merit by merely reciting them. They also
function by means of the doctrine of the “transference
of merit.” By chanting dharanone obtains merit for
oneself by drawing upon the inexhaustible stores of
merit possessed by buddhas, bodhisattvas, and gods for
use in this world, usually for protection and to coun-
teract problems understood to be the fruits of one’s
own karma, but this power may also be used to work
other kinds of miracles. Since dharanwere later pop-
ular among tantric masters, dharantexts are often,
perhaps misleadingly, classified as proto-tantric.See also:Language, Buddhist Philosophy of; Mantra;
Merit and Merit-MakingBibliography
Chou Yi-liang. “Tantrisim in China.” Harvard Journal of Asi-
atic Studies8 (March 1945): 241–332.
Lamotte, Étienne. “Obtenir les portes de Souvenance et de
Concentration.” In Le traité de la grande vertu de sagesse de
Nagarjuna (Mahaprajñaparamitas ́astra),Vol. 4, pp. 1854–- Louvain, Belgium: Institut orientaliste, Université de
Louvain, 1966–1976.
RICHARDD. MCBRIDEIIDHARMA AND DHARMASSanskrit uses the term dharmain a variety of contexts
requiring a variety of translations. Dharmaderives
from the root √dhr ̊(to hold, to maintain) and is re-
lated to the Latin forma.From its root meaning as “that
which is established” comes such translations as law,
duty, justice, religion, nature, and essential quality. Its
oldest form, dharman,is found in the pre-Buddhist
Rgveda,which dates to at least three thousand years
ago. Thus, the Buddha must have known and used the
term even before his enlightenment. At present,
dharmais used generically for “religion,” indicatingDHARMA ANDDHARMAS