Buddhism. The scripture’s cosmic vision of infinite
and perfectly interfused worlds and its exalted depic-
tions of an all-encompassing realm of reality inspired
the formation of the HUAYAN SCHOOL, which adopted
its name. In Chinese its full title is Dafangguang fo
huayan jing.It is often referred to as the Avatamsaka-
sutra (an abbreviation of Buddhavatamsaka-nama-
mahavaipulya-sutra,a reconstruction of the Sanskrit
title), and is also known by the English titles Flower
Garland Scriptureor Flower Ornament Scripture.The
exact provenance of the text is uncertain. It was prob-
ably compiled around the third or fourth century C.E.,
perhaps in Central Asia. The scripture is of encyclo-
pedic proportions and was composed by bringing to-
gether a number of shorter scriptures, some of which
are preserved in extant Sanskrit versions or Chinese
translations. The two best known of these constituent
texts are the Das ́abhumika-sutra(Ten Stages Scripture)
and the Gandavyuha-sutra,both of which circulated
widely as independent texts.
The first Chinese translation, in sixty fascicles and
thirty-four chapters, was completed by Buddhabhadra
(359–429) from 418 to 421. Another translation, in
eighty fascicles and thirty-nine chapters, was finished
during the 695 to 704 period by the Khotanese monk
S ́IKSANANDA(652–710). A third forty-fascicle transla-
tion, consisting of only the final chapter of the other
two versions, was done from 795 to 798 by Prajña.
There is also a Tibetan translation, which has forty-five
chapters and is similar in scope to S ́iksananda’s ver-
sion. Chinese scholars wrote a number of commen-
taries on the scripture, the most important of which
are those by FAZANG (643–712) and CHENGGUAN
(738–840), two patriarchs of the Huayan school.
Traditionally the Huayan jingis considered to be
the first scripture preached by the Buddha, directed
toward an audience of advanced BODHISATTVAS. Its
contents were supposedly revealed just after the Bud-
dha’s realization of awakening, as he was deeply im-
mersed in a profound samadhi that illuminates the
true nature of reality. In accord with the text’s arcane
purport, its main buddha is Vairocana, the cosmic
embodiment of the Buddha’s body of truth (dharma-
kaya). The contents of the scripture take on monu-
mental proportions, covering a wide range of
Mahayana beliefs, doctrines, and practices. Drawing
heavily on rich traditions of Buddhist COSMOLOGY,
the text is replete with mythical elements, including
elaborate descriptions of otherworldly realms where
limitless buddhas and bodhisattvas manifest sublime
spiritual powers and perform the work of universal
salvation. The scripture makes extensive use of visual
metaphors, especially images of light and space, in its
depictions of an infinite universe in which all things
interpenetrate without obstruction.
A central theme that runs throughout the whole
text is the cultivation of the bodhisattva PATH, with
its distinct stages, practices, and realizations. Chinese
exegetical works analyze the scripture’s depiction of
the bodhisattva path in terms of fifty-two stages,
which include ten faiths, ten abodes, ten practices, ten
dedications, and ten stages. The path culminates with
the attainment of the two levels of equal and sublime
enlightenment. The bodhisattva path is retold in a
dramatic fashion in the last (and by far longest)
chapter, which relates the pilgrimage of the youth
Sudhana who, during his search for enlightenment,
meets various teachers, each of whom represents one
of these specific stages. With respect to its doctrinal
orientations, the scripture makes extensive use of the
TATHAGATAGARBHAdoctrine and the attendant con-
cept of Buddha nature, which are integrated into a
larger theoretical framework that also incorporates
the MADHYAMAKA SCHOOL’s teachings on S ́UNYATA
(EMPTINESS) and the YOGACARA SCHOOL’s theories of
consciousness and reality.Bibliography
Cheng-chien Bhikshu, trans. Manifestation of the Tathagata:
Buddhahood According to the Avatamsaka Sutra.Boston:
Wisdom, 1993.
Cleary, Thomas, trans. The Flower Ornament Scripture,3 vols.
Boston and London: Shambala, 1984–1987. Also published
as a one-volume edition.MARIOPOCESKIHUAYAN SCHOOLThe Huayan school is one of the uniquely Chinese tra-
ditions of Buddhism that emerged during the Sui
(581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties. It is espe-
cially known for its comprehensive and rarefied sys-
tem of religious philosophy, which is widely regarded
as a pinnacle of doctrinal development in medieval
Chinese Buddhism. Huayan teachings also exerted a
significant influence on the doctrinal evolution of
other Buddhist traditions throughout East Asia.
Huayan’s formation was related to and inspired by the
HUAYAN JING (Sanskrit, Avatamsaka-sutra; Flower
Garland Sutra), and the school adopted its name fromHUAYANSCHOOL