Diverse schools of vinaya (nikayas) developed in In-
dia within a few hundred years after the Buddha’s
parinirvana,but the pratimoksa rules and procedures
of all these schools are thought to derive from the rules
of discipline that were originally recited at the first of
the Buddhist councils. Although the substance of the
precepts is fundamentally the same, the specific num-
bers of precepts vary slightly from one school to an-
other, for a variety of reasons. For example, (1) local
communities had different interpretations of monas-
tic discipline and there was no central authority to ad-
judicate them; (2) the precepts were transmitted orally
and in different languages for several hundred years
before they were written down; and (3) as the Bud-
dhist community spread to different geographical and
cultural areas, some precepts were adjusted in accor-
dance with local customs. These schools are in almost
complete agreement concerning the precepts, exhibit-
ing only minor differences.
Of the roughly eighteen schools of vinaya that de-
veloped in India, three lineages of pratimoksa are still
in existence today. The THERAVADAVinaya is preserved
in Pali and practiced by bhiksus in Bangladesh, Burma,
Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Sri Lanka; although the
Bhiksunlpratimoksaexists in Pali, there is no living
lineage of bhiksunlsin the Theravada tradition. The
Dharmaguptaka-vinayais preserved in Chinese and
practiced by bhiksus and bhiksunlsin China, Japan, Ko-
rea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The MULASARVASTIVADA-
VINAYA is preserved in Tibetan and practiced by
bhiksus in Bhutan, the Indian Himalayas, Mongolia,
Nepal, and Tibet; although the Bhiksunlpratimoksaex-
ists in Tibetan, there is no living lineage of bhiksunlsin
the Tibetan tradition. In the Theravada tradition, there
are 227 precepts for bhiksus and 311 for bhiksunls; in
the Dharmagupta, there are 250 for bhiksus and 348
for bhiksunls; and in the Mulasarvastivada, there are
258 for bhiksus and 354 for bhiksunls.
The Bhiksunlpratimoksa-sutraexists in all three of
these vinaya schools, but a living lineage of bhiksunls
exists only in the Dharmagupta school. Tens of thou-
sands of bhiksunls in China, Korea, Taiwan, and
Vietnam today regulate their lives by the Bhiksunl-
pratimoksaof the Dharmagupta school. In all three
extant vinaya schools, the number of precepts for
bhiksunlsis considerably greater than for bhiksus.The
Bhiksu San ̇gha was quite well organized and influen-
tial by the time the BhiksunSan ̇gha was established
five or six years later, so the bhiksunlswere naturally
expected to follow the majority of the bhiksus pre-
cepts, in addition to new precepts occasioned by spe-
cific misbehavior among the nuns. In the first cate-
gory of precepts, the parajikas,there are four that are
common to both bhiksus and bhiksunls.They are to
refrain from: (1) sexual intercourse, (2) taking what
is not given, (3) taking a human life, and (4) telling
lies, especially about one’s spiritual attainments. The
four additional parajikasfor bhiksunlsare to refrain
from: (5) bodily contact with a lustful man; (6) ar-
ranging to meet a man with amorous intentions; (7)
concealing a parajika of another bhiksunl; and (8)
obeying a bhiksu who has been expelled from the
san ̇gha. Of the second category of precepts, san ̇gh-
avas ́esas, bhiksus in all schools have thirteen, whereas
bhiksunlsin the Dharmagupta and Theravada have
seventeen, and bhiksunlsin the Mulasarvastivada have
twenty. Some san ̇ghavas ́esasare similar for bhiksus
and bhiksunls(e.g., acting as a go-between, baselessly
accusing someone of a parajika,refusing to accept ad-
monishments, creating a schism in the san ̇gha), while
others are dissimilar.
Broadly interpreted, there are eight types of
pratimoksa precepts: bhiksu (fully ordained monk),
bhiksunl(fully ordained nun), s ́iksamana(probation-
ary nun), s ́ramanera(male novice), ́rasmanerika (fe-
male novice), upasaka(layman), upasika(laywoman),
and upavasatha(one-day lay observance). There is no
counterpart to the s ́iksamana(probationary nun) or-
dination for monks. The first seven categories of
pratimoksa precepts generally entail a lifetime com-
mitment, except in countries such as Thailand where
temporary ordination is offered. The eighth type of
pratimoksa precepts, upavasatha,is the observance of
eight precepts for twenty-four hours by laypeople. The
aim of all types of pratimoksa precepts is to cultivate
restraint of the senses as a means to achieve liberation.See also:Councils, Buddhist; Festivals and Calendri-
cal RitualsBibliography
Davids, T. W. Rhys, and Oldenberg, Hermann, trans. Vinaya
Texts,parts 1–3. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1974.
Dhirasekera, Jotiya. Buddhist Monastic Discipline: A Study of Its
Origin and Development in Relation to the Sutta and Vinaya
Pitakas.Sri Lanka: Ministry of Higher Education, 1982.
Horner, Isaline Blew. The Book of Discipline,6 vols. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982.
Prebish, Charles S. Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit
Pratimoksa Sutras of the Mahasamghikas and Mulasarvasti-
vadins.University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press,
1975.PRATIMOKSA