Index 285a potent carcinogen 54–5
remediation of in groundwater 174, 176
benzene ring 24 , 25, 135
Bermuda, sewage effluent disposal 169
beta decay 28
bicarbonate
and alkalinity 150
in contintental waters 151–2
in seawater 246
and Ca, biologically cycled in seawater 189
‘big bang’ 2
bioaccumulation, in food chains 277, 277
bioavailability, of contaminants 131
biodegradation
of organic contaminants 124 , 125, 129, 130
of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 135, 136 ,
137, 138
biogeochemical cycles, human effects on 9–11
addition of exotic chemicals 10–11, 10
see alsopersistent organic pollutants (POPs)
biogeochemical cycling of iron 227–9
biological processes, in continental waters 161–70
denitrification 162
nutrients and eutrophication 163–70
biological production
limiting nutrients for 218–19
removes nutrients from surface waters 218, 220–1
biomagnification
of mercury in the food chain 172, 173
of POPs with increasing trophic level 277, 277
biopolymers 26, 27, 99, 100–2
in plant-derived soil organic matter 102
bioreactors
for treatment of contaminant hotspots 135
used by USEPA for hazardous waste sites 135, 138
Burlington Northern site 135, 137
used to treat PAHs 135–7
bioremediation122–3, 131
ex situon site
by composting 133–4
using a bioreactor 135–7, 138
in situ, biostimulation 131–3
in situand ex situ131, 132
biosphere 9
main elements in 18 , 19
biostimulation, used in in situbioremediation 131–3
biotic soils 79
primitive 104
black smokers 210–11
Bohr radius 3
bonding 15, 19–21
covalent bonds 19–20, 85
ionic bonding 70, 85
ions and ionic solids 20–1
and non-polar molecules 93
semi-covalent 76
Bowen’s reaction series 94, 96
bromine-containing compounds 63
buffering, of soil water pH 111
buildings, sulphate damage to calcareous stonework
55
cadmium (Cd), nutrient-like behaviour 222, 224
calcite202–3
supersaturation of seawater with respect to 197, 200–1,
205
calcite compensation depth (CCD) 201, 204, 205
higher in the Pacific Ocean 231
calcite solubility 107
calcium (Ca) 145, 145
cycled as skeletal material 219
in hydrothermal waters 213
calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 )
buffering the ocean pH 196
dissolution in deep waters 201, 205
formation 196–205
abiological precipitation 201, 202–3
deposition in the oceans 201–5, 203 , 205
incorporation of Mg 91 , 204
precipitation 194–5
as nodules/concretions 208
calcium sulphate (CaSO 4 ) 214
Canyon Diablo troilite (CDT) standard 269, 269
carbohydrates 26–7
carbon
from incomplete combustion 46
see alsosmoke
carbon compounds, oxidized to organic compounds 57
carbon cycle 11, 153 , 240–62
atmospheric 240–2, 260, 261
effects of elevated CO 2 levels 257–62
natural and anthropogenic CO 2 , global budget 251–7
natural and anthropogenic sources and sinks 242–50,
251
carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 58
anthropogenic fluxes 253 , 255, 255
future amount uncertain 256
see alsofossil fuel burning
atmospheric
emissions and future levels 255–7
from burning fossil fuels 242, 243, 252
future scenarios 26–7, 256
increases in
may cause enhanced plant growth 245
since mid-19th century 241 , 242
increasing concentrations 38–9
levels affected by land biota 243–6
natural and anthropogenic sources and sinks 242–50,
251
seasonal patterns in 241 , 242
consumption by soil weathering reactions 104
dissociation of and acidic water 83
an important greenhouse gas 254–5
large, natural two-way flow across the sea surface 247
natural and anthropogenic, global budget 251–7
natural fluxes 253–5
possible relationship with El Niño events 252 , 254
short-term imbalances 253–4
proposed linkage with biogeochemical cycling of Fe
229
two-way flux, seasonally unequal 241 , 242–3
carbon disulphide (CS 2 ) 263
carbon monoxide (CO) 46, 53