Themainparticipants, however, are the (except for Soma and Agni) invisible
deities who are invited to attend as guests in a formal, ceremonial act of hospi-
tality; they are fed and entertained by praise and song (Thieme 1957a,b).
Medieval and modern pu ̄ja ̄still retain this pattern (Witzel 1980, Bühnemann
1988).
The rituals range from the simplest one, the Agnihotra or “Fire Offering,” to
the most elaborate of the S ́rautarituals, such as the Agnicayana (“piling of the
fire [altar]”) and the horse sacrifice (As ́vamedha). Their complexity is derived
from incorporation of many less complex S ́rauta rites (Hillebrandt 1897, 1987;
Heesterman 1957, 1985; Staal 1982, 1990; Witzel 1987a, 1992, Minkowski
1992).
The most important rituals include the following. The initial establishment of
the fire, the Agnya ̄dheya (Moody 1989, Krick 1982); then, the Haviryajñas,
most of which are determined by the rhythm of the year, and of the sun and the
moon. The early morning and evening offering of milk (and similar products)
into the fires (Agnihotra) ensures the survival of the sun during the night
(Dumont 1939, Bodewitz 1976, Witzel 1986a, 1992). Brief as it is (some 15
minutes), it comprises about 100 actions; a number of extraneous rites have
been added, such as an offering of milk to the As ́vins, the setting in motion of
the heavenly waters of the Milky Way and of semen for men and milk for women
(Witzel 1992); in addition we find the usual Vedic wishes: sons, rain, cattle, supe-
riority within clan and tribe, living for the proverbial hundred years, and finding
a way to Heaven. S ́rauta ritual clearly is multivocal; the original meaning of any
S ́rauta ritual cannot easily be found; all its actions and the Mantras used and
their history have to be traced first (Witzel 1981/2).
Other liminal rituals include the “New (and) Full Moon” sacrifice
(Da ̄rs ́apu ̄rn.ama ̄sa), offered twice per lunar month (Hillebrandt 1879, Rustagi
1981), and the seasonal rituals, the “four-monthly” Ca ̄turma ̄sya, in spring,
rainy season, and autumn, and additionally, around New Year (Bhide 1979,
Einoo 1985, 1988).
The Pas ́ubandha or “Animal Sacrifice” (Schwab 1886) is also integrated
into the Soma ritual, and involves the killing of an animal. The inauspicious
effect of killing is undone by involving substitution for the Adhvaryu priests and
“bloodless” suffocation outside the actual offering ground; both are major fea-
tures of the S ́rauta mind set, as exemplified by the foundational (charter) myth
of the As ́vins as the Adhvaryu priests of the gods (Witzel 1987a,b, 1997b, see
below.)
The Soma Sacrifices are based on the Agnis.t.oma, a one day ritual (Caland-
Henry 1906–7) that involves a special consecration (dı ̄ks.a ̄) of the Yajama ̄na and
the pressing and offering of Soma in the early morning, at midday, and in the
late afternoon. An important preliminary (and charter type) rite is the Pravar-
gya, a hot milk drink for the As ́vins (van Buitenen 1968, Kashikar 1972). Vari-
ants of the Soma ritual last up to a year or even more; in the important 12 (or
more) day Sattra(“Sitting”) variety, the priests themselves undertake the ritual
for their joint benefit (Falk 1985).
80 michael witzel