would contest the hegemony of Church and demand separation of Church
and State.^30 In practice, Islam legitimated a system of values and community
such that clerics, landowners, merchants, warriors and even intellectuals each
had a stake in the perpetuation of the system. Thus, a class-based challenge
to the Caliphate demanding either a critique of religion, or a secular space
within the community and/or demands for democratic rule and personal
rights did not emerge.
There are fundamental ideological tensions, if not conflicts, between Islamic
orthodoxy and secular modernities (Moaddel 2005). Islam has certain core
beliefs and principles; Allah is the one God, Muhammad was his messenger,
and there is a unity of faith, community (ulamma) and governance. As a result,
throughout the Islamic world, especially in the Arab Middle East, “secular
modernity” has not been widely embraced outside of a few academic and/or
commercial realms.^31 More specifically, despite many local differences in inter-
pretation, there are several aspects of Islam that have acted as barriers to the
diffusion of modern, rational values that might confront and challenge aspects
of Islamic laws, custom and tradition. These are 1) the status of rational,
empirical sciences and their relation to Islam, 2) the relation between religion
and politics, 3) the ideal form of government, 4) national identity, 5) the rela-
tions of Muslim nations to the outside world and 6), the status of women
(Moaddel 2005:7).
Science: In Weber ’s time, Catholics were more likely to study art, philoso-
phy and literature while Protestants were more likely to study math and sci-
ence. Similarly, the Islamic pursuit of science is often secondary to other
interests. Rationalism and science are often seen as opposed to God, faith
and belief. Much like many American evangelicals, science is regarded as
contrary to scripture. Today, Islamic educational systems provide a huge num-
ber of graduates in religion or Quranic studies rather than modern commerce,
science and technologies that sustain economic growth.^32 Notwithstanding,
we might note that while many world-class scientists and doctors may come
From the Caliphate to the Shaheedim• 311(^30) It is of course interesting that at the time of this writing, a major issue in France
is the toleration for the 31 hijab, yarmulkeor crucifix in the secular, public school system.
As will be noted however below, a number of efforts toward modernization have
been stifled from either within by traditional authorities or undermined from with-
out by imperialist forces, the latest being the USA. Further, there are many examples
where Islamic modernities are emergent such as Lebanon or Turkey. 32
It should be noted, however, that there are not many opportunities for science
and technology graduates in the Muslim countries. The few such jobs that exist, are
likely to go to graduates of Western schools, namely the children of the rich.