170–163, 145–116 B.C.E.) erected a HYPOSTYLE HALL.A
second Montu temple was erected in the Ptolemaic
Period.
Medes (Mada, Madai) They were a people living in
Media Magna, now Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, and Kerman-
shah and once the ancient name of northwestern Iran.
Also called Mada and Madai, the Medes were not known
until the Assyrians entered their region in c. 800 B.C.E.
Media Magna was eventually conquered for the most part
by the Assyrians in c. 710 B.C.E. A Median monarchy
arose at the same time, and by 625 B.C.E. the Median
tribes of the region were united under Cyaxerxes and the
capital was erected at Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). In
612 B.C.E., Cyaxerxes stormed Nineveh and put an end to
the Assyrian Empire during the reign of PSAMMETICHUS I
(664–610 B.C.E.) in Egypt, ending the threat to the Nile
Valley.
In 550, Cyrus II of Persia conquered Media Magna,
and Ecbatana became the new Persian capital. ALEXANDER
III THE GREAT(r. 332–323 B.C.E.) conquered the Medes
and Persians. Throughout this period the Medes domi-
nated the Persian culture and revolted on several occa-
sions, halting Persian assaults on Egypt. The Medes were
Zoroastrians, remarkable astronomers, and learned occult
masters, respected by other cultures for their lore. Mem-
bers of one of the clans of the Medes, started by Magus,
appear in the biblical Nativity narratives.
medicine This science was called “the Necessary Art”
in Egypt and supported by the PER-ANKH, “the House of
Life,” and by schools of training and research. Most gen-
eral practitioners of Egyptian medicine were priests edu-
cated in medical techniques ranging from trauma to
gynecology, and many specialized in particular fields. The
Egyptian medical men understood the purpose of the
pulse, blood, tears, mucus, urine, and semen and their
anatomical derivations from the earliest periods.
Because of the mythological and magical aspects
attributed to the practice of medicine in Egypt by the
Greek historians, scholars have not bestowed honor upon
the practices fostered in the Nile Valley. The Greeks hon-
ored many of the early Egyptian priest-physicians, how-
ever, especially IMHOTEPof the Third Dynasty (c. 2620
B.C.E.), whom they equated with their god Asclepius.
When they recorded the Egyptian medical customs and
procedures as history, the Greeks included the magic and
incantations used by the PRIEST, which made medicine
appear trivial or a superstitious aspect of Egyptian life.
Magical spells were indeed a part of Egyptian medicine,
thus the Greeks’ disdain was not totally inaccurate. Nev-
ertheless, scholars have long recognized that the Egyp-
tians carefully observed various ailments, injuries, and
physical deformities and offered many prescriptions for
their relief.
Diagnostic procedures for injuries and diseases were
common and extensive in Egyptian medical practice. The
physicians consulted texts and made their own observa-
tions. Each physician listed the symptoms present in a
patient and then decided whether he had the skill to treat
that condition. If a priest determined that a cure was pos-
sible, he reconsidered the procedures, medicines, or ther-
apeutic remedies available and acted accordingly. The
physicians understood that the pulse was “the Speaker of
the HEART,” and they interpreted the condition known as
angina. They were also aware of the relationship between
the nervous system and voluntary movements. The
physicians could identify lesions of the head, fractures of
the vertebrae, and other complex conditions. Operations
were performed on the brain, and skulls recovered from
graves and tombs indicate that the Egyptian patients lived
through such operations and survived for years after-
ward. The human brain was not saved during the
embalming process, however, deemed unworthy of pro-
tection in the canopic jars. Brains of the deceased were
normally destroyed or savaged in the actual embalming
procedure.
Trauma care in Egypt included the treatment of vari-
ous bone injuries, with cranial fractures frequent. Surgi-
cal procedures were provided, including the insertion of
rolled linens for fractured noses and the splinting of
bones with bark, wood, linen, and vegetable fibers.
Amputations were performed successfully, and trepana-
tion, including the removal of pieces of bone from the
brain, was also provided to patients. Gags and wooden
tubes were inserted into the mouths of patients being
treated for jaw injuries. The tubes were used to provide
nourishment conveniently and to drain fluids. Brick sup-
ports and body casts were employed to keep patients still
and upright, and other materials were molded to their
bodies to supply clean, sturdy foundations for recovery.
Flax and other materials were used in the clinics or medi-
cal establishments to pack wounds as well as in the treat-
ment of sores or surgical incisions. Bandages were
normally made of linen and were applied with hygienic
standards adopted in the nation. Priests also used poul-
tices, adhesive strips, and cleansing agents. Other thera-
peutic procedures included cauterization of wounds
using fire drills or heated scalpels.
Egyptian doctors specializing in the care of the eyes
labored as devotees of the god DOUAO, the patron of
medicine. The deity Wer, or WERET, who was believed to
suffer blindness on moonless nights, was another patron
of eye specialists. Green malachite, called wadju,and a
galena mixture, called mesdemet,were used to aid blind-
ness and trachoma. The EBERS PAPYRUSadvises such pro-
cedures. This papyrus also details the care of periodontal
diseases, including dental caries. The Egyptians of all his-
torical periods had terrible teeth and periodontal prob-
lems. By the New Kingdom (1550–1070 B.C.E.), however,
dental care was critical. Physicians packed some teeth230 Medes