Encyclopedia of Sociology

BEHAVIORISM

will respond differently to two situations if its
behavior is reinforced in one setting but not in the
other. You may talk about politics to one person
but not to another, because the first person has
been interested in such conversation in the past
while the second has not. The principle of dis-
crimination and other behavior principles account
for many aspects of human behavior.

Although behaviorism usually has been treat-
ed as a uniform and consistent philosophy and
science, a conceptual reconstruction indicates that
there are many branches to the behavioral tree
(Zuriff 1985). Most behavior analysts share a set of
core assumptions; however, there are internal dis-
putes over less central issues. To illustrate, some
behaviorists argue against hypothetical constructs
(e.g., memory) while others accept such concepts
as an important part of theory construction.

Throughout the intellectual history of
behaviorism, a variety of assumptions and con-
cepts has been presented to the scientific commu-
nity. Some of these ideas have flourished when
they were found to further the scientific analysis of
behavior. Other formulations were interesting varia-
tions of behavioristic ideas, but they became ex-
tinct when they served no useful function. For
instance, one productive assumption is that a per-
son’s knowledge of emotional states is due to a
special history of verbal conditioning (Bem 1965,
1972; Skinner 1957). Self-perception and attributional
approaches to social psychology have built on this
assumption, although researchers in this field sel-
dom acknowledge the impact. In contrast, the
assumption that thinking is merely subvocal speech
was popular at one time but is now replaced by an
analysis of problem solving (Skinner 1953, 1969).
In this view, thinking is behavior that precedes and
guides the final performance of finding a solution.
Generally, it is important to recognize that
behaviorism continues to evolve as a philosophy of
science, a view of human nature, and an ideology
that recommends goals for behavioral science and
its applications.

THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR

Behaviorism requires that a scientist study the
behavior of organisms for its own sake. Behaviorists
do not study behavior in order to make inferences

about mental states or physiological processes.

Although most behaviorists emphasize the impor-

tance of biology and physiological processes, they

focus on the interplay of behavior and environment.

In order to maintain this focus, behaviorists

examine the evolutionary history and physiologi-

cal status of an organism as part of the context for

specific environment-behavior interactions. For

example, a biological condition that results in

blindness may have profound behavioral effects.

For a newly sightless individual, visual events, such

as watching television or going to a movie no

longer support specific interactions, while other

sensory events become salient (e.g., reading by

braille). The biological condition limits certain

kinds of behavioral interactions and, at the same

time, augments the regulation of behavior by oth-

er aspects of the environment. Contemporary

behaviorism therefore emphasizes what organisms

are doing, the environmental conditions that regu-

late their actions, and how biology and evolu-

tion constrain or enhance environment-behavior

interactions.

Modern behaviorists are interested in volun-

tary action, and they have developed a way of

talking about purpose, volition, and intention within

a natural-science approach. They note that the

language of intention was pervasive in biology

before Darwin’s functional analysis of evolution.

Although it appears that giraffes grow long necks

in order to obtain food at the tops of trees, Darwin

made it clear that the process of evolution in-

volved no plan, strategy of design, or purpose.

Natural variation ensures that giraffes vary in neck

size. As vegetation declines at lower heights, ani-

mals with longer necks obtain food, survive to

adulthood, and reproduce; those with shorter necks

starve to death. In this environment (niche), the

frequency of long-necked giraffes increases over

generations. Such an increase is called natural

selection. Contemporary behaviorists insist that

selection, as a causal mode, also accounts for the

form and frequency of behavior during the life-

time of an individual. A person’s current behavior

is therefore composed of performances that have

been selected in the past (Skinner 1987).

An important class of behavior is selected by

its consequences. The term operant refers to behav-

ior that operates upon the environment to pro-

duce effects, outcomes, or consequences. Operant