studied—thus the prominent role of identity in the most recent
revision of the theory (Holland, 1997). Culture, gender role, cog-
nitions such as self-efficacy or agency (Lent, Brown, & Hackett,
1994), and other aspects of personality could reasonably be ex-
pected to influence the projection process and the feedback the
individual receives during that process. Once initiated, the projec-
tion process continues to clarify and affirm (or disaffirm) an indi-
vidual’s career and life decisions. Although the projection and
feedback process is somewhat unique for each individual, it is clear
that groupings of individuals (called types) will respond similarly in
their reaction to occupations. These types help us to understand
both the repertoire of behaviors the individual is likely to display
and the assets that individual might possess. We are not talking sim-
ply about clients here but about the general population as it is
involved in vocational selection.
A second, equally important aspect of the vocational choice and
implementation process concerns the individual’s ability to act in a
constructive manner to execute a chosen option in the face of envi-
ronmental uncertainties, barriers, and opportunities. Thus it may
not be sufficient to be clear about one’s type and to have located a
reasonably fitting choice. Mobilizing the behaviors and attitudes
required to implement that choice is also necessary and is affected
by internal and external factors. Each of the types also has a charac-
teristic repertoire of behaviors that it is likely to employ in work sit-
uations (Holland, 1997). When under stress, each type may show a
somewhat different reaction. For example, Realistic types could be
expected to be prone to physical acting out, Investigative types to
denial and rationalization, Artistic types to “crazy” experiences,
Social types to depression, Enterprising types to manipulation, and
Conventional types to obsessive details. Further, culture-centered
career intervention may be possible if we can ascertain the degree to
which an individual is acculturated within a group that values col-
lectivity and shared values, as opposed to individual achievement,
as a norm for success (Juntenen et al., 2001; Gomez et al., 2001;
Spokane et al., 2001). Finally, to the extent that a cultural or sub-
410 CAREER CHOICE AND DEVELOPMENT