varied as the available specialty areas and their mod-
els for training students.
There are typically five predominant specialty areas
of psychology represented in doctoral programs: cog-
nitive, developmental, social, community, and clinical.
The cognitive, developmental, and social are consid-
ered as nonclinical areas of psychology. Programs in
these areas do not train students to assess or treat men-
tal illness but instead focus on research and teaching.
Clinical doctoral programs examine the role of mental
health on different aspects of the law, and community
psychology programs may have a clinical or a nonclin-
ical focus. Whatever the broad training differences,
there may be overlap between the topics studied by
nonclinical and clinical psychologists.
Cognitive psychologistsfocus on human percep-
tion and memory. Cognitive psychologists who work
in psychology and law focus on topics such as eyewit-
ness identification, repressed memories, and the
detection of deception. A cognitive psychologist may
be interested in the different factors that influence
eyewitnesses’ ability to accurately recall the events
surrounding a crime, such as their level of stress, the
racial identity of the perpetrator, the presence of a
weapon, or the way a police lineup is conducted.
Developmental psychologists examine the issues
that normally affect children or adolescents but are
increasingly focusing on the entire developmental
process, including old age. Developmental psycholo-
gists trained in psychology and law may study topics
involving the suggestibility of juveniles when inter-
viewed or testifying, the ability of juveniles to make
legal decisions, or the impact of divorce and separa-
tion. For example, a developmental psychologist may
study whether adolescents have the same ability as
adults to understand the criminal charges they are fac-
ing and whether their comprehension influences their
ability to assist in their legal defense.
Social psychologistsexamine the influence of oth-
ers or groups on the decisions people make. Social
psychologists are interesting in topics such as jury
decision making, jury selection, and the credibility of
witnesses. Social psychologists have found that cer-
tain characteristics of a jury alter the likelihood of a
legal verdict. For example, the size of a jury may vary,
depending on the nature of the trial and the jurisdic-
tion. Social psychologists have discovered that the
smaller the jury, the less those jurors will deliberate
and the poorer their accurate recall of trial related
information.Community psychologistsare interested in the way
society interacts with the individual. Community psy-
chologists interested in psychology and the law focus
on the manner in which the law affects the people it is
designed to protect or help. A community psycholo-
gist may examine the effects of a change in a specific
law—for instance, whether decreasing the blood alco-
hol limit for driving under the influence of alcohol
increases or decreases the number of alcohol-related
deaths—or the general impact of health care programs
on the people they intend to target.
Clinical psychologistsassess and treat individuals
who are mentally ill or have psychological difficulties.
Clinical psychologists interested in psychology and
law focus on the mental health aspects of criminal and
civil law. Clinical forensic psychologists may conduct
risk assessments of violent offenders, evaluate defen-
dants for competency to stand trial or insanity, assess
whether someone involved in a lawsuit over an auto-
mobile accident suffers from posttraumatic stress dis-
order, or be involved in a child custody dispute after a
marital separation. A student attending a doctoral pro-
gram in psychology and law is typically interested in
at least one of these areas, but there are a variety of
models or ways by which a doctoral student may be
educated in any of them.Training Models in Psychology
and Law Doctoral Programs
No matter what the specialty area, the ways in which
a student is trained in these doctoral programs are sig-
nificant. Doctoral programs in psychology and law are
joint-degree programs or specialty programs in psy-
chology and law or provide a minor or emphasis in
psychology and law. There is no agreement about the
superiority of any of these training models. Each
approach presents unique advantages and disadvan-
tages that any student should consider.
Joint-degree programs enable the student to receive
both a degree in psychology, typically a doctoral
degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.), and a law degree, typically a
J.D. Although the doctoral degree and the J.D. are the
standard degrees awarded in joint-degree programs,
the oldest joint-degree program, at the University of
Nebraska, also offers a master’s degree in psychology
(M.A.) and a master’s degree in legal studies (M.L.S.)
in combination, corresponding to Ph.D and J.D. There
has been an increase in joint-degree programs, so that
several universities now offer them. The joint-degree234 ———Doctoral Programs in Psychology and LawD-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:42 PM Page 234