Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

abnormalities are more prevalent among chronic crim-

inal offenders and those exhibiting recurrent antisocial

behavior than among the general population. These

abnormalities may be caused by damage to a specific

brain region (i.e., through injury) or by a variety of

behavioral or environmental factors (e.g., poor nutri-

tion, exposure to violence, substance abuse). For exam-

ple, research has found that prenatal and perinatal

complications have been associated with later antiso-

cial behavior. Adolescence is a time of marked brain

development in many regions, including areas impli-

cated in various aspects of self-control. As such, neuro-

logical development during adolescence has a significant

effect on emotion regulation. Researchers are actively

investigating the complex interrelations among biolog-

ical and psychological factors as correlates of conduct

problems.

Social Influences

FFaammiillyy

Family structure, family characteristics, and family

dynamics have all been connected to juvenile offend-

ing. The effect of family characteristics is most pro-

nounced in early childhood. While some research has

reported that children from single-parent households

are at increased risk of delinquent behavior, these dif-

ferences are often found to be negligible when differ-

ences in socioeconomic status are taken into account.

Interestingly, family size has been connected to juve-

nile offending, with youths having more siblings being

more likely to engage in delinquent behaviors. The

most powerful family-level predictors of juvenile delin-

quency include lack of parental supervision, inconsis-

tent discipline, and hostile or rejecting parenting styles.

Also, children who witness or are victims of abuse in

the home are at even greater risk of engaging in antiso-

cial behavior. Aggressive behavior has been found to

run in families: Having an antisocial sibling, especially

one who is close in age, increases a child’s likelihood

of engaging in delinquent behavior, and youths whose

parents engage in antisocial behavior are more likely to

do so themselves.

PPeeeerrss

The importance of peers in youths’ social networks

grows substantially during adolescence. It is thus not

surprising that most youths commit crimes in groups

and that certain characteristics of a youth’s peer group

increase his or her likelihood of offending. Foremost,

individuals with delinquent friends are more likely to

offend than individuals without delinquent friends.

While peers are known to influence an individual’s

behavior (known as socialization), research also demon-

strates that adolescents who are delinquent are more

likely to seek out and befriend other delinquents (known

as selection). Antisocial peer influence can thus be self-

reinforcing. The age and gender of an adolescent’s peers

are also important factors; having older friends is asso-

ciated with a greater likelihood of offending, and male

peers are generally more likely to encourage antisocial

behavior than female peers. Gang membership reflects

the most extreme example of deviant peer influence on

offending. Interestingly, aggressive children who are

universally rejected by their peers are at greater risk of

becoming chronic juvenile offenders than are aggressive

children who are not rejected.

The negative influence of peers tends to arise as a

key risk factor later in development, whereas family

influences typically are most important during earlier

stages. Nevertheless, the influence of peers is magni-

fied when the family environment is not healthy.

Community Conditions

NNeeiigghhbboorrhhoooodd

Children raised in disadvantaged neighborhoods are

at greater risk of becoming juvenile offenders than

children from more affluent neighborhoods. This

neighborhood effect remains significant even when dif-

ferences in school quality and family socioeconomic

status are taken into account. Since disadvantaged

neighborhoods have weak social controls due to isola-

tion and high residential turnover, delinquent behavior

is more likely to go unnoticed or be ignored by others

in the community. The lack of social control in poorly

monitored neighborhoods not only provides more

opportunities for antisocial behavior but also increases

youths’ exposure to criminal behavior by others in the

community. Such exposure is yet another risk factor for

subsequent offending.

SScchhooooll

Youths who experience problems at school are at

increased risk of becoming delinquent. Problems at

school can include a wide range of experiences, such

Juvenile Offenders, Risk Factors——— 437

J-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:43 PM Page 437