Philosophical developments
South India was the arena in which significant philosophical and theological
reflection occurred. These speculations often took the form of discourses,
even arguments, between various communities, including Buddhists,
Vais.n.avas, and S ́aivas. The “primal insight” (mu ̄ lamantra) was usually given
by a particular guruon the basis of experience. This insight would result in
aphorisms and cryptic couplets (su ̄ tras) often in poetic language. Then, on
the basis of discussion and dialectic, elaborations and explanations would
occur (s ́a ̄ stras). Finally, arguments and/or polemics (tı ̄ka ̄) would develop
in which one viewpoint was defended over against another.
The reflection of two schools of thought rooted in the south will illustrate
these “philosophical” developments. One tradition is associated with S ́aivism
and the other with S ́rı ̄ Vais.n.avism, the primarily brahmanical sect in which
Vis.n.u and his consort S ́rı ̄ are worshipped. First, the S ́aiva alternative.
S ́aiva Siddha ̄ nta
Around the eleventh century CEoneMeykan.t.ar Te ̄var, a Tamil ve ̄l.a ̄l.a(a
landowning community), articulated a theological system that came to be
known as S ́aiva Siddha ̄nta.^18 His thought was rooted in the belief system
of the earlier S ́aivabhaktasbut was expressed in terse Tamil couplets, known
as the S ́ivajña ̄napo~tam. The devotional experience formed the basis for
the intellectual system which then gave further legitimation to devotion-
alism. Here, as in many Indian schools, it was experience – that is,
understanding with proper insight – that constituted the most effective way
into comprehending what the universe was about.
In S ́aiva Siddha ̄nta – there were three fundamental concepts. The first
concept was the divine (pati). The divine could take an abstract, aniconic,
or non-anthropomorphic form (civam) such as may be expressed in the
lin ̇ gam(the creative principle embodied in a pillar). The divine could also
take concrete form (civan
̄
) such as in a particular manifestation of the deity
as in Na ̄t.a ̄rajan
̄
(the dancing S ́iva). This form of the deity was considered
active and expressed itself in five ways: creation, preservation, destruction,
concealment, revelation or discernment.
The second basic concept was pacu(“soul,” but literally, “cow”). The “soul”
took on the character or form of that to which it was attached. The “souls”
of all human beings were “attached” to the bonds of existence, hence unable
by nature to relate to and become like the deity.
The third concept was pa ̄ca(the bonds of existence). These bonds
constituted the fundamental problem of human being. These bonds were
102 The Post-classical Period