vernacular forms of mythology, theology, and cultus; and using the idiom
and technology of the times to restate a sense of heritage and identity. A new
India, religiously and politically, was dawning.
Muslim responses to coloniality
In the context of British hegemony, Muslims were faced with a triple dilemma:
political, economic, and religious. No longer having access to patronage in
the courts of the Mughals, many Muslims were unsure where to turn to find
a political haven where Islamic principles could be applied, and where
economic opportunity could be found. In the face of political and economic
decline, what did it mean to be Muslim? Surely Alla ̄h did not let his people
down. Where does one turn for renewal of a sense of one’s heritage?
Even before the British came to power these questions were arising in
the mind of Sha ̄h Walı ̄-Alla ̄h(1703–62). He was aware of increasing Hindu
revivalism, but also the movement associated with al-Wahha ̄bin Saudi Arabia.
Working with the Saudi royal house, al-Wahha ̄b had purged the Arabian
peninsula of elements considered inappropriate to Islam and installed
a puritanical form of the religion. Walı ̄-Alla ̄h’s response in India was to seek
greater harmony amongst Muslims and attempt a moral and religious
“reform” based on the Qu‘ra ̄n. He helped translate the Qu‘ra ̄n into Urdu ̄,
calling upon Muslims in India to return to the pristine form of their religion.
He was not opposed to using military action against other militants, and
attempted to get Afghanı ̄ help against the Mara ̄tha ̄s.^38
Within two generations, Walı ̄-Alla ̄h’s influence had led to the estab-
lishment of a muja ̄hidı ̄n(an Islamic militia), especially in Afghanistan
whereinjiha ̄dbecame an article of faith. Under Sayyid Ahmed Barelwi,
Islamic courts were established and Muslims were encouraged to eschew
“Hindu” practices. Especially in Bengal, several conservative movements
were spawned which sought to distinguish Muslim from Hindu and con-
fronted Hindu landlords and the British administration. Saiyid Ahmed
Khan(1786–1831), similarly, set a goal of returning to the “pristine Islam”
of the past and declared India to be a “land of warfare” (da ̄ r al-h.arb) as
opposed to a land of peace (da ̄r al-isla ̄m).Jiha ̄dcould appropriately be
invoked (as by Afghans on the Sikhs in the Panja ̄b). Indeed, it was some of
Saiyid Khan’s followers who were involved in the “Sepoy Mutiny.”^39
After the rebellion, there was some change in strategy. Urdu ̄ was flourish-
ing in such places as Lucknow and had become the language of culture and
of some colleges. Especially instrumental in setting this new tone was a
differentSyed Ahmad Kha ̄n(1817–98). Kha ̄n was impressed by the reforms
undertaken in earlier eras of Islam – especially those of al-Ma ̄lmu ̄n, the fifth
‘Abba ̄sid caliph. By the mid-eighth century, al-Ma ̄lmu ̄n had made Baghdad
Streams from the “West” and their Aftermath 181