When heated, the material hardened, and the surface de-
veloped a colored glaze. Th e material is known from many
examples of amulets (charms), scarabs (the fi gure of a beetle
used as a charm), and small sculpture, as well as containers
such as cups and bowls.
Probably the best-known and most characteristic inven-
tion of the ancient Egyptians was the process of mummifi -
cation. Th e Egyptian belief in life aft er death required that
the body of the deceased be preserved as a resting place for
the spirit. Early in Egyptian history it was determined that
the body had to be treated to prevent decay. Th is process, as
it evolved, was essentially one of desiccation, or drying out.
Since the internal organs were apt to decay rapidly, they had
to be removed and treated separately. An incision was made
in the side so the lungs, liver, intestines, and stomach could
be taken out. Th e body was cleaned and packed in a mate-
rial that would draw out any remaining fl uids. When this was
accomplished, it was wrapped in many layers of linen cloth
and put into one or more coffi ns, usually with the face of the
deceased on the lid. Th e organs were placed in a set of four
containers and buried with the coffi n. Th e process developed
over the centuries of Egyptian history, generally becoming
more elaborate.
THE MIDDLE EAST
BY MARK ANTHONY PHELPS
Inventions made in the ancient Near East encompassed
agricultural processes, technology, and intellectual life.
Th e Neolithic (or agricultural) Revolution occurred fi rst in
this region. Th e hallmarks of the Neolithic Revolution were
the cultivation of plants and selective breeding of animals,
which gave humans more control over the production of
food.
Einkorn and emmer wheat were the fi rst plants to be do-
mesticated, the former by the Natufi an culture of Israel and
the latter at Umm Dabaghiyah in Syria, both around 9000
b.c.e. Wine appeared by 6000 b.c.e. in Iran and Mesopota-
mia, and by the same date lentils were prevalent throughout
Southwest Asia. Goats and sheep were domesticated in Iran
and Afghanistan by 9000 b.c.e., and pigs and cattle in Ana-
tolia by 7000 b.c.e. Dogs had been domesticated in Israel and
Kurdistan since around 12,000 b.c.e. Th e wheat domesticated
by the early farmers may have included forms of the grain
that were not intended as food, as one ancient source states
that 40 percent of the harvest went for the production of beer,
which had made its appearance by 8000 b.c.e.It is almost impossible to see an Egyptian pyramid or temple without wondering about the methods used in their
founding and construction. Of all of the inventions ascribed to the Egyptians, some techniques have hardly been
surpassed. The massive amounts of stone needed for such projects was cut from quarries, moved to the construction
site, and placed with great precision. There has been a great deal of discussion and speculation about how the blocks
of stone, often weighing many tons, were handled. Some of the theories have been very imaginative, but the simple
answers seem to be the best. Egyptologists have used the scant information available to deduce the ancient methods.
These clues consist of paintings in tombs and the remains of temporary ramps.
In a tomb in Middle Egypt there is a painting of a gigantic statue being moved. It rests on a sled being pulled with
ropes by hundreds of men. Standing on the front of the sled is a workman pouring a liquid on the ground to lubricate
the way. The liquid may be milk, oil, beer, or simply water. There is no written evidence to tell us, but there are also
no rollers or wheels beneath the sled. In another tomb on the west bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes) is a representation
of pieces of stone being moved up an inclined ramp. In the fi rst court of the great temple of the god Amun at Karnak
part of the mud-brick and rubble ramp used to construct the pylon gateway is still preserved. Taking the tomb paint-
ings with the remains of actual ramps, it has generally been concluded that there was nothing particularly mysterious
about construction techniques. It simply required careful planning, ramps that would later be dismantled, and the
use of massive manpower.
The construction of a pyramid might have required long ramps that extended far into the desert or a series of
shorter ramps that were placed against the four sides. This method is still debated by historians. However, scholars
generally agree on the method of constructing a temple, with its gigantic walls and columns. The fi rst course of stone
for walls and columns was put into place, looking like a three-dimensional plan of the fi nished structure. Then the en-
closed space was fi lled with earth and debris to the level of the tops of the stone. This made a fl at platform on which
the next layer of stone could be moved and placed. When that layer was fi nished, the fi lling was repeated, and this
continued until the roofi ng blocks were in place. Then the process was reversed. The fi ll inside the top of the building
was removed, and the decoration of carving and painting was begun. This continued downward until the building
was completed, level by level. This technique was simple and slow, but it also made it unnecessary to use scarce wood
for scaffolding during construction and decoration.PYRAMID AND TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION
596 inventions: The Middle East