fortifi cation consisted of a simple vertical wall made of sun-
dried brick on a stone foundation with square towers placed
at varying intervals. In the fi ft h century there was an expan-
sion of fortifi cation from the acropolis to cover the entire ur-
ban area. Another major innovation of the mid-fi ft h century
were the Long Walls at Athens (which was dependent on the
sea for much of its grain supply), which ran from the city to
its harbor at Piraeus and provided a secure connection to the
sea. In the next century and continuing into the Hellenistic
Period, border forts and fortifi cations appear and become in-
creasingly complex. Th e same period also saw an increase in
the height of towers and the use of tower platforms for artil-
lery, an innovation that had begun in the course of the fourth
century. Ditches also appear with increasing frequency as a
means to keep the attackers’ siege equipment as far from the
walls as possible.
ROME
BY MICHAEL M. SAGE
Th e earliest Roman army consisted of 3,000 infantry and 300
cavalry with each of the three Roman tribes supplying 1,000
infantry and 100 cavalry. Nothing is known about how this
army was gathered or in what manner it fought. It was a mili-
tia of citizen-soldiers, as were all later Roman armies until the
end of the Republic in 27 b.c.e.
Around 550 b.c.e. a census of property was instituted for
all male citizens, and those above a certain minimum level
of wealth were obliged to serve while they were between the
ages of 17 and 46. Th e size and amount of a man’s property
also determined whether he would serve as a heavy-armed or
light-armed infantryman or in the cavalry. All service was at
the individual’s own expense until the beginning of the fi ft h
century, when the state instituted a tax to defray expenses.
Each citizen had to complete 16 campaigns in the infantry
or 10 in the cavalry. Th is system remained in force until the
end of the fi rst century b.c.e., though requirements changed
over time. Th e introduction of the census was related to the
adoption of the phalanx, a densely packed array of soldiers
composed of citizens wealthy enough to equip themselves
fully. Th ese heavily armed infantry soldiers were protected
by metal helmets, breastplates, and large round shields and
armed with heavy thrusting spears as their main off ensive
weapon.
Th e army was assembled and led by the consuls, the chief
executive offi cers of the Roman state, who were popularly
elected. Lesser magistrates with imperium, or the power to
command, and proconsuls—those magistrates whose im-
perium had been extended aft er their year in offi ce—held
independent commands. Th ese generals were assisted by a
junior elected offi cial, the quaestor, whose job it was to pro-
vide supplies for the army, and by military tribunes who
acted as general assistants to the commander. Th e army was
organized in units called legions, which in the mid-second
century b.c.e. consisted of 3,000 heavy armed infantry, 1,200
light-armed infantry, and 300 cavalry. Th e number of legions
increased over time. In the civil wars of the mid-fi rst century
b.c.e. as many as 60 legions were in service. A consul nor-
mally commanded an army of two legions and a praetor a
single legion. Later armies commanded by proconsuls could
be much larger. Caesar in Gaul from 58 to 49 b.c.e. eventu-
ally had an army of 14 legions. In addition to Roman citizens,
each Roman force included allied Italian cavalry and infan-
try organized in their own formations and serving under Ro-
man commanders. Normally the number of allied infantry
equaled the citizen infantry; the number of allied cavalry was
considerably larger.
In the course of the fourth century Roman tactics un-
derwent a major change. In place of the phalanx the army
was now organized in three separate lines. In front were the
hastati, then the principes, and fi nally the triarii. Men were
assigned to each of these lines on the basis of age, with the
youngest men assigned to the front line. Each line consisted
of 10 units called maniples, which were small phalanx-like
formations. In the front two lines the maniples were 120 men
strong, divided into two parts called centuries, while the ma-
niples of the rear line were half that size at 60 men. Each cen-
tury was commanded by an appointed offi cer, the centurion,
and the entire maniple was under the orders of the senior of
the two centurions. Th e centurions were the backbone of the
army, and its performance in the fi eld depended on them. Th e
main off ensive weapons were the javelin and the short stab-
bing and thrusting sword. (Th e third line retained the heavy
thrusting spear.) Th e light-armed troops, numbering 1,200,
supplemented the 3,000 heavy infantry of the legion.
On the battlefi eld the maniples of the legion were ar-
ranged in checkerboard fashion. Th e maniples of the fi rst line
were separated by gaps from one another. Th e maniples of the
second line covered the gaps in the fi rst line, and the maniples
of third line covered the gaps in the second. Th ese gaps per-
mitted the maniples to operate independently and allowed
those in front to withdraw to the rear, so that the enemy was
faced with fresh troops. Allied troops who gradually adopted
Roman equipment and tactics were normally placed on each
wing of the legions with the cavalry covering the right and
left ends of the battle line.
Several important changes had taken place before the
end of the fi rst century in the equipment and structure of
the army. By about 100 b.c.e. the triarii were armed in the
same fashion as the other lines. Next, the basic tactical unit
on the battlefi eld changed from the maniple to the cohort, a
unit of between 500 and 600 men. Th e size of the legion also
increased to 6,000 men.
Aft er 88 b.c.e. the Italians became Roman citizens and
served in the legions or in the Roman cavalry. Roman cav-
alry and light infantry disappeared aft er 100 b.c.e. and were
replaced by units from Rome’s empire or allied states. As the
empire grew, Roman soldiers began serving for prolonged pe-
riods far from home. Th ese extended absences were incom-
patible with a civilian militia system, and the army gradually734 Military: Rome