Kush as well as Meroë and Axum. Th ere is evidence that iron-
working was present in the Nok civilization by 1200 b.c.e.
Many scholars believe that this technology moved with the
Bantu groups into southeastern and southern Africa. Iron ore
mining followed in the footsteps of copper and bronze min-
ing in many areas of Africa. Iron ore or other metal ores were
removed from the earth either from areas already exposed
(opencast mines) or from holes (shaft s) dug down (sometimes
as deep as 40 to 60 feet) below the surface, into which miners
were lowered to chip away at the rock and send pieces of rock
and ore up in baskets. In present-day Swaziland, iron ore shaft
mines date to approximately 400 c.e. Th ere is evidence that
the task of mining was oft en done by native African slaves
and by men, women, and children. Iron was forged into tools
for use in farming and mining and for weapons.
With the growth of human populations and civiliza-
tion centers and the adoption of sedentary lifestyles came
a demand for military professionals. Ancient empires such
as those of Axum and Nubia had strong armies. Th ere were
many titles within the military hierarchy, and the king or
queen frequently was the leader of military conquests. An-
cient Nubia, particularly aft er 300 b.c.e., is known for its tra-
dition of strong queen warriors who led troops into battle.
Th e army of Carthage (northern Africa) in the fi rst millen-
nium b.c.e. consisted mainly of Berbers (who themselves
had become successful traders, manufacturers, and farmers);
these men either were recruited or enslaved into military ser-
vice from the surrounding area as a result of the expansion of
the empire of Carthage.
EGYPT
BY CHARLOTTE BOOTH
Like people in all civilizations, the ancient Egyptians worked
hard, and many titles have survived indicating positions held
by the elite. Some titles, however, were honorary and did not
have any responsibilities attached to them. Other titles de-
scribed the individual responsibilities within a broader blan-
ket title. Th ere were three categories of occupations available
to men: administration, the priesthood, and the military. One
occupation that crossed all categories was the scribe. About
one in 100 people in ancient Egypt could read and write, so
the services of scribes were needed. Scribes were profi cient in
hieratic script, the cursive form of hieroglyphs that was used
for administrative purposes; only temple scribes were able to
read the hieroglyphic script.
A talented scribe could rise to the position of vizier, which
was oft en a stepping-stone to the throne. Th e vizier was very
powerful and in close daily contact with the king. Th e entire
palace and its internal operations were under his control. Th e
vizier also was involved in the safety of the king. In addition,
the greater security of Egypt and the police force were under
his control. He presided over the legal court, dealing with the
daily petitions of the ordinary people, which were normally
concerned with petty crimes or off enses. He acted as judge,
sentencing and administering punishments on behalf of the
king.
Th e priesthood was open to all, men and women, whether
they were literate or not, and the priestly positions refl ected
their skills. Th e temple scribes oft en entered the House of
Life, an institution where all the religious texts were written,
restored, and archived. Th e House of Life is reputed to have
stored knowledge of medicine, geography, geometry, and as-
tronomy, and it also produced physicians who were trained in
medicine and religious incantations.
Th ere were many priestly titles, among them, the sem
priest, who carried out all funeral rites and prayers, includ-
ing the “opening of the mouth” ceremony—a ritual in which
the mummifi ed body of the deceased was symbolically ani-
mated through the opening of the mouth so that the per-
son could breathe in the aft erlife. Th is priest was normally
the deceased’s heir and eldest son, though from the First
Dynasty (ca. 2920–ca. 2770 b.c.e.) professional sem priests
were employed. Ka priests were responsible for supplying
sustenance for the deceased, and they would have worked
in the mortuary temples of the king and the chapels of the
wealthy.
Many part-time priests worked one month in four and
would return to their villages when they were not required.
Th e lower clergy, known as wab priests (“pure ones”), played a
supporting role by carrying the sacred bark, or boat, in which
the statue of the god traveled; cleaning the temple; supervis-
ing painters and draft smen; and engaging in other general
tasks around the temple. Th ere were also a number of sub-
sidiary temple workers—caretakers, janitors, workmen, bak-
ers, butchers, and fl orists—among them, so-called sacrifi cers
who slaughtered sacrifi cial animals; all were essential to the
successful running of the temple.
Th e third occupational avenue for men was the military,
which became available at the start of the Eighteenth Dynasty
(ca. 1550–ca. 1307 b.c.e.) when the permanent army was in-
troduced. Th ere were many specialist units that required dif-
ferent abilities, including charioteers, spearmen, and infantry
soldiers. Training would have started in childhood. Scribes
were also an essential part of the army entourage. Th ey ac-
companied the military to chronicle the events of the cam-
paign, and they were responsible for counting the enemy
dead and recording the collected booty and prisoners.
Th e opportunities available for women were diff erent,
though many women were housewives and remained in the
home. Th e poorer women married to farmers would be ex-
pected to help during the busy harvest period. Winnowing
grain was oft en carried out by women, and young girls were
sent to glean. In the home women were responsible for grind-
ing grain for bread and for baking it. Th e loaves could then
be sold at the market along with other household produce,
such as baskets, pots, beer, and linen. Even the royal women
were instrumental in the manufacture of linen, and evidence
suggests that the harem at Gurob was a large producer of
royal linen.occupations: Egypt 809