Integration of the Second Order:
Psychological-Behavioral Approaches
We call the second type of approach psychological-behavioral because the
focus is no longer on brain mechanisms but rather on mental-behavioral
functions. Compared with the previous more or less molecular approach,
psychological-behavioral approaches operate distinctly at a molar level of de-
scription. Various motivational, emotional, and cognitive constructs, such as
surprise, schematic reaction, volition, intention, expectancy, planning, are
molar-level constructs. For instance, whereas Derryberry and Tucker (1994)
used the term motivation to denote a regulatory function of the limbic sys-
tem, motivation at the molar level is a mental construct that can only be un-
derstood in a functional context (e.g., to win a game or solve a math prob-
lem). Tolman (1932) described molar behavior as integrated responses that
have their own emergent properties, such as forward-reaching or goal-
directedness, means–end readiness, or goal–situation pairing. Thus they rep-
resent the higher-level organization of mental and behavioral functions that
serve adaptive purposes, and cannot be reduced to molecular-level analysis.
Directional Influences of Motivation on Cognitive Processes. Broadly de-
fined, motivation is indicated by the intensity (or energy), direction, and per-
sistence of a goal-directed behavior or action. Dweck’s work on goal orienta-
tion (Dweck, 1999; Dweck, Mengals, & Good, chap. 2) clearly emphasizes
the direction aspect of motivation. In other words, motivation does not just
kickstart a mental act, with the rest of the action carried out by cognitive
processes. Goal orientation (whether the attentional focus is on the self or on
the task to be learned, and what is the implicit or explicit purpose of engaging
in the task) frames the mindset, and can significantly influence the allocation
of attentional resources, effort expenditure, and emotional reactions to diffi-
culties, and persistence in the face of setbacks.
The Quality and Valence of Affect on Cognition. Dweck’s theory is predi-
cated on the assumption that motivation is cognitively based (i.e., goal-
directed), and subsequent emotional responses to task demands and perform-
ance are derivative of one’s belief systems and goal orientation. Linnenbrink
and Pintrich (chap. 3), in contrast, attempt to show that positive or negative
affect may influence cognitive functioning. This approach echoes the re-
search tradition of mood dependent memory and other cognitive processes
(Eich, Kihlstrom, Bower, Forgas, & Niedenthal, 2000). There is a growing
body of research on the role of affect on intellectual functioning, with a par-
ticular focus on the affective valence, for example, Fredrikson’s (1998)
Broaden-and-Build model of positive emotions (see Linnenbrink & Pintrich,
chap. 3, for a review). The role of affect in problem solving in mathematics
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