Research by Chao (1994, 2001) further posed challenges to the established
universal claim that the so-called authoritative parenting style produces well-
adjusted and well-achieving children, whereas authoritarian parenting style is
associated with maladjusted and low-achieving children. Ironically, Chinese-
American children’s ratings consistently place their parents high on tradi-
tional authoritarian measures, an outcome that purportedly undermines in-
trinsic motivation for learning and achievement. Yet, these children achieve
well despite their parents’ authoritarian style. According to Chao’s analysis
of cultural values, Chinese-American children may perceive their parents’ in-
tense routine monitoring and nudging as care and love instead of interfer-
ence with their personal choice or the so-called fear of academic failure asso-
ciated with authoritarian parenting as claimed by Steinberg, Dornbush, and
Brown (1992) and Eaton and Dembo (1997). The Chinese-American parent-
ing style cannot be made to fit the framework of the authoritative versus au-
thoritarian dichotomy. Instead, it may be a culturally based style of their
own, which manages to motivate Chinese-American children to learn and to
achieve well.
Learning Styles and Strategies
Differences in learning styles and strategies were once thought of as an exclu-
sive domain of individual differences (Slavin, 1999). However, recent re-
search has shown some marked, consistent differences at least between West-
ern and Asian cultures (Watkins & Biggs, 1996). Two areas have received
more research attention: (a) approaches to academic tasks and (b) the role of
verbal expression.
With respect to approaches to academic tasks, researchers have noted that
Western learners take steps that are organized around the notion of task effi-
ciency (Brophy & Good, 1986; Hess & Azuma, 1991; Smith & Caplan, 1988).
The idea is to complete the task at hand at a fast pace using effective strate-
gies so that the learner can move on to the next task. This style is believed ef-
fective in managing tasks, organizing time, and getting the job done while
keeping oneself on the task, avoiding boredom, even increasing fun and inter-
est one may experience in learning. These aspects also belong to the general
notion of self-regulated learning (Pintrich & de Groot, 1990). Western learn-
ers also frequently display a higher level of creativity in their approaches to
learning tasks (Gardner, 1989). Western teaching, as well as pedagogical ma-
terials, are designed to foster this style of learning (Brophy & Good, 1986;
Stigler & Hiebert, 1999).
Asian learners have been observed to take a slower and more thorough ap-
proach to learning. They spend more time focusing on each component of a
task, practicing a skill repeatedly and meticulously until they master it
(Gardner, 1989; Hess & Azuma, 1991; Singleton, 1998). Asian learners were
- AMERICAN AND CHINESE LEARNERS 391