The Dictionary of Human Geography

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footpath erosion; see Liddle, 1997) or social

impacts (such as contested claims and control)

of recreation upon spaces might be a focus.

Recreation can forge norms of appropriate con-

duct within spaces and lead to conflict, for

instance, in parks or green spaces if different

groups (in terms of age,ethnicityorsexual-

ity) have clashing recreational practices. A

major strand of work has been disaggregating

the social and physical factors affecting access to

recreation in terms of income ordisabilityor

more hidden social factors. For instance, peri-

urban woodland may be more-or-less physically

accessible, but this may be compounded by fear

of crime differentiating access by gender

(Burgess, 1996). Work has looked to trends

such as the commodification of recreation or

the increasing spatial restrictions ofchildren’s

access to spaces of informal recreation in light of

fears over their safety (Smith and Barker, 2001;

Valentine, 2004; Department of Communities

and Local Government, 2006). Recreation thus

has to be seen as linked to the widerproduc-

tion of space,production of natureand

changing practices of consumption, where

recent work has looked at recreational practices

of dance, moving from studies of subcultures to

discussperformanceandbodycultures, espe-

cially vianon-representational theory. mc

Suggested reading

Hall and Page (1999); Lorimer and Lund

(2003); Prosser (2000); Valentine (2004).

recycling A process that reuses the materials

and energy components of an item to create

another product. In most waste hierarchies,

recycling sits below reducingconsumption,

reusing an existing item and reprocessing,

and above disposal. Although recycling uses

energy, it can reduce waste for disposal and

the need for raw materials in production

processes. Recycling was used during the two

world wars, but not for environmental

reasons. Although contemporary recycling

may be undertaken solely for economic reasons

(if recycled materials cost less than raw ones), it

is usually represented as an environmental con-

cern. Human geographers have investigated

people’s motivations for engaging in recycling

activities (Barr, Ford and Gilg, 2003). pm

red-light districts While sex work has

never been a solely urban phenomenon, it is

in specific areas of towns and cities that it has

been most visible. In most cases, these areas

are particularly associated with female street

prostitution, though in some instances, they

are also characterized by an agglomeration of

off-street work in the form of ‘adult-oriented’

businesses, sex clubs, theatres and peep

shows. In some cities, these areas may coin-

cide with spaces of male prostitution and gay

venues, although the visibility of these in the

landscapehas typically been less pronounced.

The concentration of ‘vice’ and prostitution in

specific areas has long fascinated urban geog-

raphers and sociologists, with the pioneering

work of the chicago schoolof sociology

including several detailedethnographiesof

the lifestyles of those occupying these areas

of ‘immorality’ and deviance. More recent

work has suggested that these areas cannot

be understood merely as the outcome of sup-

ply and demand economics, but as the out-

come of a complex interaction of moral codes,

legal strictures andpolicingpractices that

encourage the containment of vice ininner-

cityareas away from whiter, wealthier subur-

ban populations (who, ironically, appear to

be the principal clients of sex workers:

Ashworth, White and Winchester, 1988;

Hubbard, 1999). However, recent efforts to

clean up vice areas, and the tendency for cli-

ents to contact sex workers via theinternet

and mobile phone, means that red-light dis-

tricts are becoming less numerous in Western

cities (Sanchez, 2004). ph

redistribution A transfer of resources

between groups or places. Redistribution

may be progressive (reducinginequality)or

regressive (increasing inequality). Urban geo-

graphers emphasize the role of redistribution

in the early formation of urban settlements.

Harvey (1973), following the work of Karl

Polanyi, argued that redistribution is one form

of economic integration along with reciprocity

and market exchange. Early urbanization is

often assumed to have depended on the accu-

mulation of an economic surplus, involving a

shift away from reciprocity and towards redis-

tribution (with resources being transferred

from rural to urban areas).

Redistribution has been a core concern of

welfare geographywith its focus on the

unequal socio-spatial distribution of re-

sources. The goal of reducing socio-spatial

inequalitywas central to the development of

thewelfare statewhich seeks to mitigate

the social inequality fostered by capitalist

accumulationby providing free or subsidized

services such as health care and education,

and cash transfers such as unemployment

benefits and old-age pensions. According to

Keynesian economic theory, such transfers

Gregory / The Dictionary of Human Geography 9781405132879_4_R-new Final Proof page 625 2.4.2009 9:12pm

REDISTRIBUTION