as a result of persecution by the Taliban. Also
included are some anti-Taliban Pashtuns or mem-
bers of other persecuted groups.Gender roles within Afghan
culture
The Afghan immigrants in Australia still strongly
adhere to many Afghan traditions. Among these,
kinship is the key facet of Afghan life. An Afghan
kinship system stretches vertically from nuclear
family to the nation as a whole. The system in-
volves a genealogy of ancestry and the “blood
aspect permeates the entire fabric, for even the
blood feud is inherited” (Dupree 1973, 183). To
some degree, the family determines the social rank,
marriage partner, religious adherence, and personal
standards and manners of its members (Wardak
1997).
Family life is at the core of the psychological
well-being of the Afghan people. They tend to
socialize exclusively with members of their ex-
tended family. Every decision is connected to the
family. The typical Afghan family is multigenera-
tional. The senior female supervises and delegates
tasks to the other women in the household and
directs all female activities (Hemming 1997). The
extended family is not only the major social unit
but also the major economic unit in society. The
family guarantees security for both men and
women from the time of birth to the time of death
as individual, economic, social, and political rights
are found within the family. Gender and age roles
are expressed within the household and it is here
that young boys and girls learn their place in the
world (Hemming 1997).
For all Afghan immigrants, the family functions
as the primary social institution. Afghan culture is
patriarchal (authority remains in the hands of the
elder males), patrilineal (inheritance is through
the male line), and patrilocal (the female moves to
her husband’s place of residence upon marriage)
(Dupree 1973, Wilber 1995). However, as Dupree
(1973) asserts, “the idealized picture is greatly
modified by certain elements which perpetuate
matri-influences.” As the centrality of the women’s
roles is pivotal to the well-being of the family, the
selection of spouse is important. The preferred
marriage for a man is to marry a daughter of his
father’s brother (Dupree 1973, 191, Wardak 1997).
There is a strong matri-core in the Afghan commu-
nity, which can be seen in intimate aunt-niece rela-
tionships and mother-in-law and daughter-in-law
closeness (Dupree 1973). Although endogamous
marriages are most prevalent among all groups within
Afghanistan, inter-ethnic marriages have always510 motherhood
occurred, and are increasing due to large popula-
tions settling outside the areas of their ancestors,
including among those who are in Australia.
The primary obligation for women is to uphold
family honor by conforming to the norms of
accepted behaviors. Afghan society, with its strong
belief in male superiority, gives men the prerogative
to make all decisions and few challenge this
(Dupree 1998). Afghan women typically have little
formal power. However, informally, strength is
shown in decision-making in the home and often in
economic activities outside the home (Dupree
1973). The traditional conception of the male ele-
ment is one of strength and the female element is
one of weakness (Dziegiêl 1977).
Traditionally, Afghan communities distinguish
between two worlds: the world of men and the
world of women, which only come together in the
home (Dziegiêl 1977). The world of the men is typ-
ically the external world, where work outside the
home is undertaken. Women are confined to the
internal world, dealing with household care and
raising children. Traditional ideology favors the
subordination of women by men (Dziegiêl 1977,
Wilber 1995). This is still prevalent among those
who are now living in Australia.
The upbringing of children up to the age of ten
years is the domain of the mother who shapes and
influences their personalities. This accounts for the
high respect that is granted to mothers as well as the
acceptance of a “matriarchy,” following the death
of the father. The widowed mother brings the fam-
ily together, continuing to live in the household of
her adult son (Dziegiêl 1977). The father is in
charge of the discipline and punishment of the chil-
dren. Boys stand in awe of their fathers and the rela-
tionship is one of respect and obedience. The
mother raises the children from birth and has a
strong bond with her children (Wilber 1995). The
relationship between mother and daughter in
Afghan culture is very close and is extremely warm
and affectionate (Hemming 1997). It is the mother
that children turn to for support, particularly as her
interests are centered around the home (Wilber
1995).Motherhood: women’s voices
The influence of Afghan social structure is clearly
mirrored in women’s perceptions and lived experi-
ences of being a mother.The meaning of motherhood
Motherhood is associated with kindness and
respect. The mother is responsible for the entire
family and she endures many hardships to bring a