formally evaluated against ideal-type criteria, the pool of candidates is very
much restricted and the organisation takes a reactive rather than strategic
approach to expatriation.
5 EXPATRIATE ADJUSTMENT AND FAILURE
In the previous section we already alluded to the importance of expatriate
adjustment. In this section we will provide a comprehensive model of expatri-
ate adjustment and will critically evaluate the related issue of expatriate failure.
A model of expatriate adjustmentBlack, Mendenhall and Oddou (1991) provided a comprehensive model of
expatriate adjustment that integrates perspectives from theoretical and empir-
ical work in both the domestic and international adjustment literature. They
argue that expatriate adjustment includes two components: anticipatory
adjustment and in-country adjustment. Anticipatory adjustment can have an
important positive impact on in-country adjustment. It is positively influenced
by cross-cultural training and previous international experience, although it is
reasonable to expect that the latter will only be true if the earlier experience
abroad was a positive one. Both help to build up accurate expectations and the
more accurate the expatriate’s expectations, the lower the level of uncertainty,
the fewer the surprises and the lower the level of culture shock. The MNC can
help anticipatory adjustment by providing cross-cultural training and using
comprehensive selection criteria (see Section 4).
The in-country adjustment part of their model, which is reproduced in Figure 10.2,
was tested by Shaffer, Harrison and Gilley (1999). Shaffer et al. introduced two
moderating variables, previous assignments and language fluency. In Figure 10.2
we have underlined the relationships that were confirmed in the empirical study.
The model identifies three dimensions of adjustment: adjustment to work, adjust-
ment to interacting with host country nationals and general adjustment to the
living conditions abroad. As expected, both role clarity (the extent to which what
is expected from the expatriate is clear and unambiguous) and role discretion
(flexibility in the execution of the job) were positively related to work adjustment.
Role conflict (conflicting signals about what is expected in the new work setting)
and role novelty (the extent to which the current role is different from past roles)
did not show the expected negative relationship to work adjustment, though role
novelty was negatively related to general adjustment.
Support from co-workers and logistical support were positively related to
interaction adjustment, though the expected impact of logistical support on
Composing an International Staff 271