to be the same as mindfulness itself. Furthermore, meditation arrives at a steady
consciousness which is not momentary, but shows an immutable nature be-
neath the phenomenal changes. The Andhakas were still operating in the
Abhidharma mode of classification, but they added nirvana itself to the list of
elements and gave it a controlling function; nirvana became a skanda pulling
the human individual toward liberation. This doctrinal shift brought the And-
hakas into debate both with the lineages of the Elders and with the other
Mahasanghikas.
Other splits among the Mahasanghikas came from theological innova-
tions.^33 The Lokottaravadins held that the body of the Buddha is supra-mun-
dane (lokottara); the historical Buddha who appeared in the world was only
an appearance, as indeed is the mundane world in general (Conze, 1962: 163).
The Chaitiyas, located in the southern kingdom of Andhra, were apparently
stupa worshippers, in contrast to orthodox monastic meditators. The Ma-
hasanghikas generally came to hold that the body of the Buddha pervades the
universe, and that there is a plurality of Buddhas, including transmundane
ones. One can see a number of trends in the direction of Mahayana, which
appears to have arisen largely out of the Mahasanghika sects, and especially
the Andhakas.
The Mahayana is not a sect in quite the same way as the others. It seems
to have emerged both inside the monasteries and, perhaps more important,
among lay orders. There is a connection between early Mahayana or proto-
Mahayana and the stupas, mound-shaped reliquaries or monuments (Hirak-
awa, 1990: 256–274). These were established and kept up by lay donors as
alternative centers of worship and teaching outside monastic routine. Doctri-
nally, the Mahayana innovations downplayed the monk seeking individual
salvation, and extolled the Bodhisattva, who continues in the world to preach
salvation to everyone. Such a doctrine would have exalted the status of the
semi-professional staff of caretakers at the stupas and the lay orders which
surrounded them. Original Buddhism had won its organizational advantage
over its early rival meditative orders by forging stronger ties to lay donors and
providing a morality for laypeople. Mahayana was a revival of and expansion
toward this lay base.
Mahayana practice turned away from the prolonged meditative exercises
of the monks. It elevated the ceremonial making of vows, which might also be
taken by laypersons. The physical text itself became the focus of ritual worship;
copying and reciting scriptures became major acts of religious merit.^34 Mahay-
ana emerged as a set of scriptures alleging new revelations from the mouth of
the Buddha; and it was by a copying campaign that these scriptures spread.
Such newly appearing scriptures were of course scandalous to the learned
monks (Nakamura, 1980: 151). They were justified by the doctrines of the
218 • (^) Intellectual Communities: Asian Paths