328 handwriting
defeat by John I Tzimiskes (r. 969–976) in 958, and the
pillage of ALEPPOin 962 by Nikephoros II Phokas (r.
963–969) began the decline of the Hamdanids, enabling
the Byzantines and FATIMIDSto split control of northern
Syria by the end of the century, effectively ending Ham-
danid power by 1016.
Further reading: Clifford Edmund Bosworth, The
Islamic Dynasties (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press, 1967), 49–50; Marius Canard, “Hamda ̄nids,” Ency-
clopedia of Islam,3.126–131.
handwriting SeePALEOGRAPHY.
Hanseatic League(Hanse) The Hanseatic League was
a confederation of cities and merchants that dominated
the trade of northern Europe by 1250. The term was first
used to refer to German merchants active in England in
the 12th century. The Hanse controlled maritime traffic
from the Baltic to the North Sea and from NOVGORODto
LONDON. It was based on a cartel of some 180 to 200 of
primarily German maritime towns, from the NETHER-
LANDSto FINLAND. By the 15th century it was even active
in the Mediterranean. The union was generally headed by
the towns COLOGNE in northwestern Germany and
LÜBECKalong the Baltic coast. Its main object was to pro-
tect trade and commercial interests with whatever politi-
cal and commercial external or internal means necessary.
They included financial measures, blockades, and mili-
tary interventions directed by a diet meeting in Lübeck
and all done to protect its privileges and rights. It was
eventually replaced by Dutch, English, and other mer-
chants protected by their princes.
Its merchants founded colonial market towns and
traded in FURS, grains, metallurgical products such as
Swedish steel and copper, salt from the Atlantic coasts,
the fine WINEof Poitou and Bordeaux, English wool, and
French and Flemish TEXTILES. Its merchants ruled the
seas because of the technical design and superiority of
their ships. By the end of the 15th century its long-dis-
tance fleet numbered a 1,000 ships carrying about 60,000
tons of freight.
See also COLOGNE;DENMARK;GOTLAND;LIVONIA;
LÜBECK;PRUSSIA;SWEDEN.
Further reading: Philippe Dollinger, The German
Hansa,trans. D. S. Ault and S. H. Steinberg (1964; reprint
London: Macmillan, 1970); Albert d’Haenens, ed., Europe
of the North Sea and Baltic: The World of the Hanse
(Antwerp: Fonds Mercator, 1984); T. H. Lloyd, England
and the German Hanse, 1157–1611 (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1991); Johannes Schildhauer,
The Hansa: Its History and Culture,trans. Katherine Vas-
rovitch (Leipzig: Druckerei Fortschritt Erfurt, 1985).
Hapsburg dynasty SeeHABSBURG DYNASTY.
Harold II Godwineson of Wessex (ca. 1022–1066)
last Anglo-Saxon king of England
Harold II was born about 1022 and was the second son of
Godwine (d. 1053), earl of WESSEX, one of the most pow-
erful men in 11th-century ENGLAND. When EDWARD THE
CONFESSORreturned from exile in NORMANDYto become
king in 1042, he restored the house of Wessex in England
after 25 years of rule by Danish kings. Godwine then
attempted to keep the power he had as a royal adviser to
the Danes. Not until 1051 did Edward feel strong enough
to banish Godwine and his sons. Less than a year later,
however, Godwine was reconciled with Edward under
threat of a civil war. When Godwine died on April 15,
1053, Harold became the earl of Wessex.CAMPAIGNS AND TRAVAILS
After his father’s death Harold soon became Edward’s
most powerful, and even trusted, adviser and military
commander. Between 1055 and 1063 he commanded the
English armies in campaigns against the aggressive
Welsh. Harold finally defeated them and stabilized the
border. This triumph greatly enhanced his authority and
his reputation. It also established his claim to succeed
King Edward, whose only remaining relative was a very
young cousin living at the court of HUNGARYwho had
been married twice and had several children, about
whom we know very little.
In 1064, the incident depicted in the famous BAYEUX
TAPESTRYoccurred. Harold was sent by Edward on a mis-
sion of unknown nature to the Continent, but he was
blown off course and landed in NORMANDY. There he was
imprisoned and taken to Duke William (the future King
WILLIAMI), to whom he swore an OATHthat seemingly
committed him to helping William secure the English
kingship after Edward’s death. It has remained unclear
whether Harold actually gave his word freely or under
duress. When Edward died in January 1066, Harold was
clearly in the best position to preserve continuity of
English rule in England and was at once selected by the
English nobility as Edward’s successor.
Harold’s brief reign was one of frantic activity in
defense of England against invasion both by William and
by Harald Hardrada (r. 1046–66), the king of NORWAY.
Harald attacked first; in September 1066, he landed with
a large army in Yorkshire. Harold, who had been in the
south awaiting William’s attack, raced northward and
crushed the invaders at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on
September 25. Two days later William, delayed by unfa-
vorable winds, sailed from Normandy with an army of
NORMANSand mercenaries. Harold rushed south to face
William with an exhausted and undermanned army. The
two sides met near HASTINGSon October 14; after a day
of furious fighting, Harold was killed and his army
defeated.
Further reading:Michael Swanton, trans., “The Life
of King Harold Godwinson,” in Three Lives of the Last