426 al-Kindi, Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Sabbah
of the Russian Church and separation from the
metropolitanate of MOSCOW. From about 1362, under the
rulers of LITHUANIA, the town emerged from its decline
and prospered through its importance in the increased
commerce with the East.
See alsoKHAZARS;NOVGOROD; RUSSIA ANDRUS ́.
Further reading: Samuel Hazard Cross and O. P.
Sherbowitz-Wetzor, trans., The Russian Primary Chronicle
(Cambridge, Mass.: Medieval Academy of America,
1953); George Vernadsky, trans., The Medieval Russian
Laws(New York: Columbia University Press, 1947); Mar-
tin Dimnik, The Dynasty of Chernigov 1054–1146
(Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1994);
Martin Dimnik, Mikhail, Prince of Chernigov and Grand
Prince of Kiev, 1224–1246(Toronto: Pontifical Institute of
Mediaeval Studies, 1981).
al-Kindi, Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Sabbah
(the Philosopher of the Arabs)(ca. 800–ca. 870)
philosopher, scholar
Of noble lineage, born about 800 in IRAQ, al-Kindi has
been considered the originator of PHILOSOPHYexpressed
in Arabic while integrating the authority of the ARIS-
TOTELIAN and NEOPLATONIC Greek heritage. He was
especially important for the development of philosophi-
cal terminology during an era of great intellectual tur-
moil. He defined his terms for use in both THEOLOGY
and religion. Borrowing from ARISTOTLE, he left numer-
ous short works on philosophy and the sciences, such
as ASTROLOGY and MEDICINE. He believed that
humankind should pursue knowledge regardless of its
source and that philosophy or reason and religion and
faith were not antithetical. Only a small part of his work
reached the West, most notably his On Reasoning,of
which two LATINtranslations survive. He did not sup-
port Greek points of view that contradicted the QURAN.
With few pupils, he died about 870, leaving behind no
Islamic school of thought, though he did help integrate
philosophy into Islamic theology.
Further reading:A. L. Ivry, ed. and trans. Al-Kindi’s
Metaphysics: A Translation of Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi’s
Treatise “On First Philosophy”(Albany: State University of
New York Press, 1974); George N. Atiyeh, Al-Kindi: The
Philosopher of the Arabs (Islamabad: Islamic Research
Institute, 1966); Nicholas Rescher, Al-Kindi, An Annotated
Bibliography(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press,
1964).
kings and kingship, rituals of There were elaborate
concepts of kingship and rituals of consecration during
the Middle Ages. In the early Middle Ages, Frankish and
some ANGLO-SAXONkings belonged to specially elected
families almost of divine origin. Kingship was sacred;
there was little Christian context. The king was the medi-
ator between his people and warriors and the gods, who
in turn were the source of victory and prosperity. Each
generation usually witnessed a contest for succession.
The brother who prevailed was considered to have won
by divine will. But kingship quickly became discontinu-
ous and destructive, with each new generation of sibling
heirs warring over the apportioning of lands and power
the deceased father had acquired. Power was seized more
often than it was inherited, despite the elaborate theories
and mythological precedents. At the same time, the geog-
raphy of kingdoms was unstable and borders were con-
stantly revised. Although dynastic succession and
consecration were ultimately accepted and sometimes
necessary, election or acceptance by the kingdom and its
strongest members always remained fundamental to
actual rule.CONSECRATION AND THE
RULE OF THE CHURCH
The introduction of consecration by the clergy as part
of a coronation ritual led to great changes. Visigothic
bishops came to anoint the elected ruler in imitation of
the prophets and kings of Israel. Clerics held the power
to anoint, and probably also by implication, to depose.
Christian kings were the guarantors of peace and jus-
tice who led their people to salvation with the advice of
the clerics. The CAROLINGIANSwere consecrated in 751
and 754 to mark the dynastic transition from the
MEROVINGIANS. By 987, it was generally agreed that
kingship was hereditary for the able sons of deceased
kings.FRANCE AS MODEL
Such dynastic rights of succession developed quickly first
in FRANCEwhile other kingships remained elective. The
election in 987 of HUGHCapet changed the concept both
of the kingdom and of the king. The CAPETIAN DYNASTY
was concerned with creating a continuous dynastic suc-
cession. They organized the premature consecration of
their successors and associated them with the throne dur-
ing their own lifetime. The ruler had to be male, since the
role of war leader and judge was still considered funda-
mental. Primogeniture was not contested. The exclusion
of women was more firmly established during the fre-
quent successions between 1316 and 1328. French cus-
tomary consecration carefully never put the king under
the tutelage of a pope or even the archbishop of RHEIMS,
who traditionally carried out the ritual of coronation. The
consecration OATHin France was more of a declaration of
intention, and election was replaced by a merely formal
acclamation of the designated heir. In the late Middle
Ages, blood and descent determined who was king. Con-
secration became less important.KINGSHIP ELSEWHERE
The status and traditions of the French monarchy
greatly influenced ideas about rulership and succession