Leo III, Saint 443Hambledon Press, 1990); Aba Bayefsky, Bayefsky’s Specta-
cles: Being a Short Discourse on the History and Develop-
ment of Eyeglasses from the 13th Century to the Late
Eighteen-Hundreds(Toronto: Canadian Portfolio Editions
and Edwards Books and Art, 1980); David C. Lindberg,
Studies in the History of Medieval Optics(London: Vario-
rum, 1983).
Lent The modern English term Lent was derived from
Anglo-Saxon lenctenor “spring.” The origin of the idea
of a period of 40 days, in Latin Quadragesima,preceding
the feast of EASTERand characterized by the practice of
FASTINGis obscure. It apparently originated in the late
third century in the monastic world of EGYPT. In the
fourth century it evolved into a penitential preparation
for Easter, tied to the preparation of baptismal candi-
dates or catechumens. It could also be an ascetic exercise
that preceded the reconciliation of penitents. These ideas
were maintained in Roman liturgical traditions. At the
same time other churches in the East linked them to
Jesus’ 40-day FASTin the desert, which began his mes-
sianic mission, and to the similar period of fasting of
Moses and the prophet Elijah.
A number of usages or rites were later associated
with the practice of Lent. The beginning of the fast itself
became ritually anticipated in the West, from the
Wednesday preceding the first Sunday of Lent, or Ash
Wednesday, a day marked by the ceremony of receiving
ashes on the forehead symbolizing penance. Actual
practices of fasting varied over time. The fundamental
rule of Lent evolved to taking only one meal, normally
the cenaor “dinner” in the second part of the afternoon.
It could mean abstention from meat, fish, eggs, and
dairy products.
Further reading: H. Franke, Lent and Easter: The
Church’s Spring(Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1955); Her-
bert Thurston, Lent and Holy Week: Chapters on Catholic
Observance and Ritual(London: Longmans, 1904).
Leo I the Great, Saint (ca. 400–461)first pope to
claim the supremacy of the papacy over all Christianity
Born perhaps in TUSCANYabout 400, Leo tried to unite a
divided and threatened church. After serving as a deacon
in the Roman Church, Leo was consecrated as pope on
September 29, 440. He obtained from Emperor Valen-
tinian III (r. 425–455) a confirmation of primacy of the
Roman see over the other principal churches of the West-
ern empire. In 452/453 Leo met ATTILAthe Hun near
Mantua and, assisted by fear of the plague, secured his
retreat from Italy in return for a large bribe. He later
negotiated concessions on sacking the city of Rome from
the VANDALS and their king, GAISERIC, in 455. These
accomplishments were considered miraculous and Leo
was honored as the pope who had saved Italy from the
barbarians. Active as a theologian and ardent opponent of
HERESY, Leo sent delegates to the Fourth Ecumenical
Council of CHALCEDON in 451 with instructions to
defend orthodoxy against MONOPHYSITISM. His treatise in
449, the To m e ,made him the leader and strongest propo-
nent of orthodoxy within the church. Leo is venerated as
a saint by both the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox
Churches. Leaving 96 sermons and 123 letters behind, he
died on November 10, 461, and was declared a doctor of
the church in 1754.
See also LIBER PONTIFICALIS;NESTORIANISM; PAPACY.
Further reading:Leo I, Pope, St. Leo the Great: Let-
ters,trans. Edmund Hunt (Washington, D.C.: Catholic
University of America Press, 1963) [1957]; Leo I, Pope,
Sermons,trans. Jane P. Freeland and Agnes J. Conway
(Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America,
1995); T. J., The Life and Times of St. Leo the Great(Lon-
don: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1941);
Walter Ullman, A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle
Ages(London: Methuen, 1972); William J. Halliwell, The
Style of Pope St. Leo the Great(Cleveland: John T. Zubal,
1984).Leo III, Saint(d. 816)pope who crowned Charlemagne
as Holy Roman Emperor in 800
Leo was a Roman priest of a humble family who was
known for a fairly blameless life. He was elected pope on
December 26/27, 795. From his youth, he had grown up
in the ecclesiastical atmosphere of the Lateran Palace
around papal activities. As had his predecessor, Hadrian I
(r. 772–795), he pursued an aggressive policy. This led
him to perhaps the surprise imperial coronation of
CHARLEMAGNEin 800 in an attempt to solidify the links
between the papacy and Frankish-dominated Europe. He
even paid Charlemagne homage.
Leo, even though not coming from an aristocratic
family, considered papal authority, even in terms of
temporal manners, in an autocratic way. He almost
always tried to act in close connection with royal and
imperial authority. Leo acted strongly against the ADOP-
TIONIST heresy but refused to include the FILIOQUE
Clause in the Nicene Creed, contrary to the wishes of
the BYZANTINES, but as the Franks wanted. Such politi-
cal subservience, however, earned him the hostility of
Roman notables. He was attacked in 799 and suppos-
edly had his tongue cut out and his eyes blinded. These
were, however, miraculously restored. In 815 after
Charlemagne’s death, he was confronted with riots
against his rule. He put them down by executing scores
and only managed to emerge victorious because of the
support of the Franks. He died June 12, 816, and was
canonized in 1673.
See alsoCAROLINGIAN FAMILY AND DYNASTY;EINHARD;
HOLYROMANEMPIRE;LOMBARDS; PAPACY.
Further reading:Raymond Davis, trans. The Lives
of the Eighth-Century Popes (Liber pontificalis): The