Saracens 645Fabled Cities of Central Asia: Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva
(New York: Abbeville Press, 1989); Luc Kwanten, Impe-
rial Nomads: A History of Central Asia, 500–1500
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979);
J. Lawton and F. Venturi, Samarkand and Bukhara(Lon-
don: Tauris Parke Books, 1991); H. H. Schaeder, C. E.
Bosworth, and Yolande Crowe, “Samarkand,” Encyclope-
dia of Islam8:1,031–1,039.
Samuel, czar of Bulgaria(Samuil of Bulgaria)(ca.
980–1014)king of the Bulgarians
The son of a provincial governor, Shishman, in MACEDO-
NIASamuel restored the Bulgarian empire, which had been
destroyed by the Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes (r.
969–976). Samuel established his capital at Preslav and
then OCHRIDA. After successful military campaigns and
overrunning Macedonia and SERBIA, his rule extended
over most of the Balkans and Thessaly in GREECE. From
1005 Samuel was attacked by Emperor BASILII, who sys-
tematically campaigned and defeated the Bulgarians twice
and in 1014 destroying most of the Bulgar army. Tradition
has it that Basil blinded 15,000 prisoners and sent them,
led by a few men who were left with one eye, back to
Samuel. He supposedly died of an apoplectic fit or stroke
when he saw such treatment. This ended any semblance
of Bulgarian independence from the BYZANTINEEMPIRE.
Further reading:John V. A. Fine, The Early Medieval
Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth
Century(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991);
Steven Runciman, A History of the First Bulgarian Empire
(London: G. Bell and Sons, 1930).
Santiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela is a
city in northwestern SPAINin the province of GALICIA.
Local traditions from the 10th and 11th centuries claimed
that Compostela was the burial site of Saint James the
Great (d. 44), the apostle and “brother of Christ.” The
body of James was supposedly spirited away from
JERUSALEMafter his martyrdom by his followers. It was
taken west and eventually buried in Compostela (the orig-
inal place-name) at the western end of the Roman Empire.
He was to become the patron saint of the RECONQUEST.
From the end of the 10th century his grave was promoted
as a shrine and attracted great numbers of pilgrims from
all over Western Europe. Santiago de Compostela became
a major pilgrimage site, behind only Jerusalem and ROME.
In the 11th and 12th centuries, hospices and Clu-
niac abbeys were built along the roads to Santiago de
Compostela. The city revived in prosperity. The popular-
ity of this cult and pilgrimage in the 11th and 12th cen-
turies was helpful in recruiting pious knights from
FRANCEfor the wars against the Muslims in Spain. The
see was elevated to that of an archbishop and a great new
cathedral was begun in 1128 and consecrated in 1211.
The name of the city was officially changed to Santiago
de Compostela. A military order, the Knights of Santiago,
was founded there in 1170 to protect pilgrims.
See also ASTURIAS-LEÓN, KINGDOM OF;CALATRAVA,
ORDER OF; PILGRIMAGES AND PILGRIMAGE SITES;
ROMANESQUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
Further reading: Maryjane Dunn and Linda Kay
Davidson, The Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela: A
Comprehensive, Annotated Bibliogaphy(New York: Gar-
land, 1994); Paula Gerson, ed., The Pilgrim’s Guide to San-
tiago de Compostela: The Pilgrim’s Guide: A Critical
Edition, 2 vols. (London: Harvey Miller Publishers,
1998); William Melczer, The Pilgrim’s Guide to Santiago de
Compostela (New York: Italica Press, 1993); Edwin B.
Mullins, The Pilgrimage to Santiago(London: Secker and
Warburg, 1974); Marilyn Jane Stokstad, Santiago de Com-
postela in the Age of the Great Pilgrimages(Norman: Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press, 1978).Saracens Sarakenoi in Greek, Saraceni in Latin was the
term commonly used in the Christian West for Arabs and
Muslims. The term Sarakenoi initially appeared in classi-
cal authors as a name for a nomadic Arab tribe living
between the Sinai Peninsula and the Dead Sea. This sug-
gested another Greek word, skénitai,or “those who live
under tents.” Some ecclesiastical authors in the early
Middle Ages, such as ISIDORE OFSEVILLE, gave this word
another origin, linking it with Sarah, the wife of Abra-
ham. According to the odd, but clearly hostile version of
Isidore, some Muslims were trying to claim their origins
from the legitimate son of Abraham by Sarah, Isaac,
instead of the illegitimate son, Ishmael, by Abraham’s ser-
vant girl, Hagar. Both the biblical and Quranic traditions
said that Sarah was the mother of Isaac, the ancestor of
the Jewish tribes, and Abraham’s servant-girl Hagar was
the mother of Ishmael, who was considered by Muslims
to be the ancestor of the Arab tribes.
From the eighth century, Latin authors such as BEDE
began to call the new invaders who raided into Gaul, ITA LY,
and PROVENCESaracens. Other such names were used,
such as Moors, Agarenes, Ishmaelites, pagans, infidels, and
Mahometans. The slanderous word Saracen stereotypically
meant an idolatrous pagan warrior, a treacherous and
debauched destroyer and pillager, or even a servant of the
devil. This representation was based on a misunderstand-
ing of Islam and hostility to a perceived and real threat. It
had little if any relation to Muslims or Islamic civilization.
By the time of the CRUSADES, chronicles and chansons de
geste used this term. The word continued to be used
throughout the Middle Ages and far longer in polemics
and in propaganda promoting crusading or colonization
efforts. Other Christians who had more direct experience
with Islam sometimes did have a more accurate apprecia-
tion of Muslims, but continued to use the term.
See alsoISLAM;LULL,RAMÓN, ANDLULLISM;RECON-
QUEST.