excessive nutrient consumption. The diagnostic
path includes a comprehensive medical examina-
tion, height and weight measurements, careful
assessment of EATING HABITS, body composition
assessment, and a complete BLOODcount (CBC) as
well as other blood tests to measure nutrient lev-
els. A BODY MASS INDEX(BMI) below 17 kilograms
per meter squared (kg/m^2 ) is generally diagnostic
of inadequate consumption; a BMI greater than
30 kg/m^2 is generally diagnostic of obesity.
Treatment Options and OutlookTreatment for malnutrition focuses on correcting
the nutritional deficiencies that exist, which usu-
ally means generalized nutritional supplementa-
tion until symptoms resolve, along with dietary
changes to improve overall nutrition. People who
have obesity often have significant nutritional
deficiencies even though their food consumption
may be excessive. The US Department of Agricul-
ture (USDA) publishes a food pyramid with rec-
ommendations for food consumption to meet
NUTRITIONAL NEEDS. Daily physical activity, such as
walking, improves the body’s ability to digest,
absorb, and metabolize nutrients and also is key to
weight management.
The success of treatment depends on the sever-
ity of the malnutrition at the time of diagnosis, the
status of underlying or contributing causes (such
as gastrointestinal or metabolic disorders), the per-
son’s age, the availability of nutritious foods, and
the ability to feed oneself. Many of the symptoms
of malnutrition resolve without residual complica-
tions, though severe symptoms may result in per-
manent damage.
Risk Factors and Preventive Measures
The most significant risks for malnutrition are
inadequate food consumption and malabsorption
disorders that keep the body from extracting
needed nutrients during digestion. Those who
cannot easily feed themselves are most susceptible
to inadequate consumption. People who diet fre-
quently or follow restrictive eating habits (such as
those who follow a vegan diet) are at risk for defi-
ciency in key nutrients normally in the foods they
are not eating. APPETITE loss contributes to
decreased food consumption in serious chronic
conditions such as HIV/AIDS and CHRONIC OBSTRUC-
TIVE PULMONARY DISEASE(COPD). Untreated disorders
of specific NUTRIENT DEFICIENCYsuch as BERIBERIand
SCURVYlead to generalized malnutrition.
It is important to eat or provide a variety of
foods in the appropriate quantities, as the USDA
food pyramid recommends, especially for young
children and the very elderly, for whom caregivers
sometimes assume intake is nutritionally ade-
quate. Though most healthy children and adults
who can feed themselves can acquire the nutri-
ents they need through diet, nutritional supple-
ments can provide a steady and certain source of
necessary nutrients for people who have chronic
health conditions or who do not eat adequately.
See also AGING, NUTRITION AND DIETARY CHANGES
THAT OCCUR WITH; ANEMIA; MINERALS AND HEALTH; OBE-
SITY AND HEALTH; OSTEOPOROSIS; PELLAGRA; VITAMIN
AND MINERAL THERAPY; VITAMINS AND HEALTH.minerals and health Minerals are inorganic
micronutrients essential for health and the body’s
proper development and function. Minerals are
abundant in nature and in most foods, and facili-
tate numerous actions in the body. Six major min-
erals (also called macrominerals) and nine trace
minerals (also called microminerals) are essential
for health and the body’s proper growth and
development; the body cannot survive without
them. Numerous other trace minerals are present
in the body and presumably important for the
body’s functions but researchers do not under-
stand their roles. Minerals within the body are
also called electrolytes or ions because they are
polarized (carry a positive or negative charge).Major Minerals
The body requires substantial amounts of the
major minerals, which are essential for the daily
activities that keep the body alive and functional.
The body of a person who weighs 160 pounds
contains 3 pounds of calcium, 1^1 ⁄ 2 pounds of phos-
phate,^1 ⁄ 2 pound of potassium,^1 ⁄ 4 pound each of
sodium and chloride, and a little over 1 ounce of
magnesium.
The major minerals work closely with each
other and with the vitamins. For example, cal-
cium, phosphate, and magnesium are essential for
BONEmineralization though their passage into the
bone requires the presence of vitamin D in the186 Nutrition and Diet