Bioethics Beyond Altruism Donating and Transforming Human Biological Materials

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312 F. Giles



  1. Financial information for private companies is not available, however
    Prolacta has raised US$46 million in investment since it was founded
    and Medolac has an estimated annual revenue of US$10 million.

  2. For more information about the exploitation of wet nurses, including
    the transference of syphilis from babies to wet nurses in nineteenth-
    century France, see Joan Sherwood, Infection of the Innocents ( 2010 ).

  3. For a history of the antecedents of attachment parenting, see Sharon
    Hays’ work on ‘intensive mothering’ in her book, The Cultural
    Contradictions of Mothering (1996).

  4. See Trevor MacDonald et al. ( 2016 : 2); and Jessi Hempel, ‘My broth-
    er’s pregnancy and the making of a new American Family,’ Time, 1
    September 2016 http://time.com/4475634/trans-man-pregnancy-evan/
    (accessed 3 September 2016).

  5. Breastfeeding is also regarded as an altruistic element of mothering
    since advocacy (and the Christian heritage, if not other religious tra-
    ditions) promotes breastfeeding as a duty, and symbol of the good
    mother. Although breastfeeding (as opposed to human milk via other
    means) is increasingly understood to have mutual physical and psy-
    cho-social benefits, and its pleasures are being relearned, promotion of
    breastfeeding still rests on its scientific benefits, and by extension, the
    moral imperative of a mother to maximise the health of her offspring.

  6. It is beyond the scope of this essay to develop the conceptualisation of
    human or breastmilk as a food, and the ways this attribute has been
    occluded in both advocacy and scientific discourse. Nevertheless, the
    ‘foodiness’ of human milk has been explored by both chefs and artists
    and provides potential for an approach to the valuation of breastfeeding
    as environmentally sustainable, if not part of the slow food movement
    (see also Nicola Perullo Taste as Experience 2016 ).

  7. Initially established as Eats on Feets in 2010 by Shell Walker and Maria
    Armstrong following an idea to help people share milk in 1991, an
    offshoot known as Human Milk 4 Human Babies has become the bet-
    ter known of the two sharing websites, among others which have since
    been established worldwide.

  8. This required lobbying LLL organisers who were uncertain whether
    a man would be a suitable advisor. For the full story, see http://
    http://www.huffingtonpost.com/trevor-macdonald/how-i-learned-to-be-a-
    bre_b_1452392.html (accessed 3 September 2016).

  9. Following extensive media coverage of incidents involving expressed
    breastmilk, US airports now permit larger quantities than 100 ml to


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