32 2: Th eories of Political Control of Bureaucracy
changed or until safeguards were in place to assure that desired prog-
ress would continue.” (355)- “Congress has created a new network of agencies, commissions, staff s,
and other entities to conduct oversight functions, thereby supplement-
ing some committees and subcommittees in their oversight roles. Con-
gress also places great reliance on the investigatory and oversight roles
of its own support agencies.” (356) - “Th e infl uence, expertise, and commitment of members of Congress
and their staff s were critical to sustaining detailed congressional in-
volvement.” (356)
Eff ects on Executive Management
- “Congressional initiatives both strengthened and burdened the hands
of agency administrators, sometimes one more than the other. Th e bur-
den came in the form of the added workload of new requirements and
the erosion of the long-term capacity to manage. Th e strength came in
the form of ‘an added stick’ in dealing with the Offi ce of Management
and Budget and the regulated community and in forceful incentives to
comply with statutory mandates and to avoid public censure.” (358) - “Congressional initiatives changed the structure of governmental ac-
tivities and functions. Th is shift is characterized by the creation of an
array of commissions, boards, and specially designated offi ces within
and between both branches.” (358)
Gilmour and Halley (1994) observed five styles of congressional co-
management. Th e strategic-leader style is associated with strengthening depart-
mental management in directions favored by Congress. Th e reorganization of the
Department of Defense in 1986 is a good example. Th e reorganization was the
result of a desire by Congress to consolidate authority and improve coordination
in the Department of Defense. Th is was accomplished by enhancing the power of
the Joint Chiefs of Staff , among other reforms.
Congress may approach co-management as a consulting partner, where legis-
lative authority is unlikely to be unilaterally imposed. Th is is the case when both
Congress and the administration share information and when Congress is more
reactive. Foreign aid is illustrative: Congressional concessions for human rights,
abortion, and the like are built into foreign aid decisions, as are high levels of fi -
nancial support for favored countries, such as Israel.
Congress may co-manage as if it were a superintendent by issuing mandates
including management procedure, schedules, and other details ordinarily left to
public administrators. In this style, Congress uses as many control mechanisms
as needed, including monitoring and reporting requirements. An example of this