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connects the why to the how; it suggests the mechanism or strategy by which
action may be taken to solve the problem. For example, liberal theory’s idea
of efficiency can lead to the use of compulsion to bring about change. Like
explanatory theory (as was noted earlier), interventive theory is also socially
constructed and is often legitimized by those who have choice and consider
a theory plausible.
Three interventive theories that operate at the social/structural level are
outlined: compulsion, class struggle, and participation. These are followed by
three interventive theories that operate at the personal level: behavior modi-
fication and cognitive restructuring; consciousness raising; and advocacy,
empowerment, and self-determination.
Compulsion
Compulsion theory takes an approach based on the concept of legitimate
authority, by which the ruling authorities have the right to use force in their
territorial setting. Change is seen to occur effectively when people are
compelled to act as required by law, market forces, or policy. This can include
not only change that is absolutely required by the authority but also persuasion
and manipulation to keep to the rules. This theory is especially associated
with liberal and conservative thought. In a modern neoliberal context, the
compulsion is rarely violent, but it is often both covert and overt, with poli-
cies from government being implemented in such a way that members of
society feel they have no choice but to conform to what is expected of them.
There is a sense that change is inevitable and that to resist it would be futile.
An example of compulsion might be the provision of tax benefits for couples
but not for singles, thus pressuring single people to enter partnerships to
gain some financial benefits. Such compulsion could also impose penalties if
couples separate or divorce.
Class Struggle
The class struggle theory is associated mostly with Marxism and socialist
thought. The theory argues that only a revolution, brought about by the work-
ing class undertaking a collective class struggle to overthrow the capitalist ruling
class, can solve social problems. A major first step is to bring the exploited
masses to an understanding of their exploitation. Much effort is directed to
making people aware of the real nature of their exploitation, by raising their
consciousness (Freire 2000) or by critiquing the power of the dominant class
(hegemony), so that the current social structure is no longer widely accepted
by the lower classes (Gramsci 1971). This interventive strategy needs to be