certain races (e.g., white or Asian), gender (males),
religion (Christians or Jews), or regions (the northeast
or Hollywood).
An alternative to elite theory in political thought is
PLURALISM, which says that many groups compete for
influence in society and government. In this view, no
elite group has permanent power, but all must com-
pete in the “political marketplace” for control. Out of
this rival competition of groups, James MADISONfelt,
society would remain under democratic control, and
individual freedom would be preserved. Such multiple
interests make elites unstable and unpredictable.
The concept of elite is ambiguous in contemporary
political thought. It is viewed favorably (such as in an
elite university) or unfavorably (as an academic elite
or liberal elite), depending on the context in which it
is used. But generally, in Modern DEMOCRATICculture,
eliteis a negative term, and much political activity is
devoted to “opening up” elite strongholds (in the state,
the military, social, and religious organizations). Affir-
mative action is largely a policy to accomplish the
destruction of perceived racial and gender elites.
Further Readings
Bachrach, P. The Theory of Democratic Elitism.Boston: Little,
Brown, 1967.
Bottomore, T. Elites and Society.London: Routledge, 1966.
Field, G. L., and Higley, J. Elitism.London: Routledge, 1980.
empire/imperial
A large geographical area ruled by a central political
power. For example, the Roman Empire, the Chinese
Empire, the British Empire, or the Ottoman Empire.
Usually, an empire includes rule over a variety of
national and ethnic groups, and its political unity
enhances economic development and trade. A military
component that keeps subjected people under control
is always a feature of an empire. Before the 20th cen-
tury, an empire was considered a sign of superior cul-
ture, law, and military power. Since the emergence of
MARXISM, empires have been portrayed as inevitably
exploitative and hegemonic. National-liberation move-
ments going back to ancient Israel’s rebellion against
Roman domination and continuing in America’s Revo-
lutionary War against the British Empire have marked
MODERN history. Mexico’s breaking from the Spanish
Empire, Vietnam against French imperialism, and
Afghanistan against the SOVIET UNIONreveal the preva-
lence of resistance to imperial rule.
Politically, an empire is the most centralized system
of the state. A vast area ruled by a single state is the
least democratic or local kind of government. When
the French Revolution of 1789 turned from a republic
to the French Empire under Emperor Napoleon, it was
seen as betraying its ideals. In the 20th century, V.I.
LENIN asserted that neo-colonialism allowed formal,
technical, political independence, but economic impe-
rialism really controlled the world through London,
New York, or Berlin. Many developing countries
(Africa, Asia, Latin America) perceive themselves as
part of the economic empires of the United States and
Europe, under the World Bank.
The benefits of empire have included expansion of
civilization, religion, and economic development. The
Roman philosopher CICEROgave the CLASSICALrationale
for empire as the extension of universal LAWand (mili-
tary and commercial) order. In the MIDDLE AGES, DANTE
advocated a one-world empire under the CATHOLIC
Church to end all war and social conflict. The contem-
porary one-world-government movement is essentially
advocating a world empire for the same purposes.Further Reading
Pagden, Anthony. Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in
Spain, Britain and France c. 1500–c. 1800.New Haven,
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995.Engels, Friedrich (1820–1895) German com-
munist thinker and collaborator of Karl MarxBorn into a wealthy capitalist family, Engels became a
critic of INDUSTRIALISM, especially of the poor condition
of the factory workers. Engels wrote several articles
and books describing the squalid housing, poor health,
and overworked condition of the industrial mill work-
ers in Germany and England in the mid-1800s. He
attacked the hypocrisy of the respectable middle-class
CHRISTIANSwho exploited the working poor and pre-
tended that they were better than the impoverished
masses.
Engels moved to northern England in 1842 to man-
age a family business. He became involved in SOCIALIST
politics and investigated the living conditions of Man-
chester clothing-mill workers. At this time, he began
to develop theories about the problems of CAPITALIST
economics (“Outlines of a Critique of Political Econ-
omy”) and solutions through socialism. In 1844, he
collaborated with Karl MARXon the satirical essay TheEngels, Friedrich 93