Islam/Islamic/Islamic political thought 159theory to international relations. Jeremy BENTHAMfirst
coined the phrase international law and applied his
UTILITARIANethic to it. HUMAN RIGHTShas become a
prominent theme in late 20th-century international
law. Largely a construct of Western liberal CAPITALIST
DEMOCRACIES, current international law seldom enjoins
uniform compliance. Independent nations value their
sovereign interests and tend to conform to interna-
tional regulations selectively. Still, the ideal of a
rational, peaceful resolution of international disputes
has a civilizing and educational effect on the most bar-
baric past practices, and fears of a “New World Order”
are allayed somewhat by the inefficiency and unen-
forceability of universal international law.
Further Readings
De Visscher, C. Theory and Reality in Public International Law.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967.
Falk, R. A. The Status of Law in International Society.Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970.
Hyde, C. D. International Law,2nd ed. Fred B. Rothman & Co.,
1983.
Kelsen, H. Principles of International Law,2nd ed. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966.
Lauterpacht, H. The Function of Law in the International Commu-
nity.Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1933.
Islam/Islamic/Islamic political thought
The political ideas emanating from the holy books of
the Islamic religion (especially the Koran), the schol-
arly interpretation of those religious texts by Muslim
writers, and the historical practices of government in
Muslim countries. Islam is the third great monotheis-
tic faith (along with Judaism and CHRISTIANITY), and its
religion and politics resemble them in many ways,
including confronting issues of CHURCH AND STATE(or
how to relate the spiritual and the worldly realms).
As in the other dominant theological systems in the
world, Islamic political thought has a rich and diverse
tradition, but generally it ties religious and govern-
mental AUTHORITYmore closely together than Chris-
tian political ideology. Originally, after the Muslim
prophet MOHAMMED, who united both sacred and se-
cular authority in himself, the “imam-caliph” com-
bined worldly and godly power in one ABSOLUTIST
ruler. Later, a division occurs in Islamic political
thought (and practice) between the worldly, secular
ruler (the sultan) and the religious leader (the caliph).
Still, temporal and spiritual realms are closely linked,
as Muslims see (much like CATHOLICChristians) that
government cannot rule well without morals (which it
gets from religious institutions) and spiritual entities
cannot exist without the support, encouragement, and
protection of the state. So, most of Muslim political
history (as in the vast Ottoman Empire) is of close
cooperation and interconnection between the political
and religious establishments. This contributes to the
strong emphasis on absolute obedience and submis-
sion to authority, divine and worldly (God–Allah,
ruler–sultan, governor; religious leaders–caliph,
imams; family–father, parents). Questioning of author-
ity, much less than rebellion, is seen as unacceptable
in traditional Islamic political culture. Obedience,
respect for authority, submission, order, and staying in
one’s place reflect the values of the Muslim religious
and political mentality. Much like PLATO’s Republic,
staying obediently in one’s place or function is seen as
the fulfillment of VIRTUE, JUSTICE, and the divine will.
Resignation to the existing power structure, accept-
ance of whatever happens in the world, fatalism,
patient suffering, and passivity represent the Islamic
worldview. Western, ENLIGHTENMENTnotions of ques-
tioning, ACTIVISM, PROGRESS, change, independence,
and REVOLUTION are seen as morally decadent and
socially disruptive. This produces a basic CONSERVATIVEMuslims worshiping the shrines sacred to Islam, in Mecca, Arabia.
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